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PART Ⅰ INTRODUCTION3

1 FUNDAMENTALS OF INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW3

1.1 The notion of international criminal law (ICL)3

1.2 General features of ICL4

1.3 The notion of international crimes11

1.4 Sources of ICL13

1.5 The historical evolution of inte rnational crimes27

2 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW32

2.1 Preliminary remarks32

2.2 The principle of individual criminal responsibility33

2.3 The principle of legality of crimes36

2.4 Articulations of the principle of legality41

2.5 The principle of legality of penalties51

3 THE ELEMENTS OF INTERNATIONAL CRIMES53

3.1 The objective and subjective elements of crimes53

3.2 The structural elements of international crimes53

3.3 General features of the subjective element56

3.4 Substantive rules setting out the mental element required for crimes57

3.5 General notions of mens rea common to most legal systems of the world58

3.6 General categories of mens rea: intent60

3.7 Recklessness66

3.8 Culpable or gross negligence70

3.9 The ICC Statute73

3.10 Judicial determination of the mental element74

PART Ⅱ SUBSTANTIVE CRIMINAL LAW SECTION I INTERNATIONAL CRIMES81

4 WAR CRIMES81

4.1 The notion81

4.2 The need for a link between the offence and an armed conflict82

4.3 Establishing whether a serious violation of IHL has been criminalized84

4.4 The objective elements87

4.5 The subjective elements92

4.6 The definition of war crimes in the ICC Statute94

5 CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY98

5.1 The notion98

5.2 The origin of the notion101

5.3 The objective elements109

5.4 The subjective elements114

5.5 The possible authors116

5.6 The possible victims117

5.7 Customary international law and Article 7 of the ICC Statute123

6 GENOCIDE127

6.1 The notion127

6.2 The 1948 Convention on Genocide127

6.3 Developments in the case law on genocide131

6.4 The objective elements133

6.5 The subjective elements137

6.6 Problematical aspects of genocide138

6.7 Genocide and crimes against humanity144

6.8 Article 6 of the ICC Statute and customary international law146

7 TORTURE AS A DISCRETE CRIME, AND AGGRESSION148

7.1 Introduction148

7.2 Torture as a discrete crime149

7.3 The crime of aggression152

8 TERRORISM AS AN INTERNATIONAL CRIME162

8.1 A current misconception: the alleged lack of a generally agreed definition of terrorism162

8.2 Factors pointing to a generally agreed definition of terrorism in time of peace164

8.3 The ingredients of international terrorism as a discrete international crime in time of peace166

8.4 Specific sub-categories of international terrorism as a discrete international crime169

8.5 International terrorism in armed conflicts: a sub-category of war crimes171

8.6 International terrorism as a sub-category of crimes against humanity175

8.7 Summing up177

8.8 The general question of multiplicity of offences178

SECTION Ⅱ MODES OF CRIMINAL LIABILITY187

9 PERPETRATION AND JOINT CRIMINAL ENTERPRISE187

9.1 General187

9.2 Perpetration188

9.3 Co-perpetration189

9.4 Participation in a joint criminal enterprise to commit international crimes189

10 OTHER MODES OF LIABILITY214

10.1 Aiding and abetting214

10.2 Incitement as a form of participation in international crimes218

10.3 Inchoate crimes: general219

10.4 Attempt220

10.5 Planning225

10.6 Conspiracy227

10.7 Incitement to genocide229

10.8 Ordering230

11 CRIMINAL LIABILITY FOR OMISSIONS233

11.1 General233

11.2 Rules imposing a positive obligation to act234

11.3 Culpable omission of an act mandated by an international criminal rule235

11.4 The responsibility of superiors236

SECTION Ⅲ CIRCUMSTANCES EXCLUDING CRIMINAL LIABILITY255

12 JUSTIFICATIONS AND EXCUSES255

12.1 The distinction between justifications and excuses255

12.2 ICL: general258

12.3 Self-defence259

12.4 Excuses: two main categories262

12.5 Excuses based on lack of individual autonomy263

13 OTHER EXCUSES: SUPERIOR ORDER, NECESSITY, DURESS, AND MISTAKE268

13.1 Excuses where lack of mens rea derives from external circumstances268

13.2 The question of superior orders: may they be pleaded as a defence?268

13.3 Necessity and duress280

13.4 Mistake of fact290

13.5 Mistake of law294

14 IMMUNITIES302

14.1 General: various classes of immunities302

14.2 Functional and personal immunities provided for in international customary law303

14.3 The customary rule lifting functional immunities with respect to international crimes305

14.4 International personal immunities309

14.5 National personal immunities314

PART Ⅲ PROSECUTION AND PUNISHMENT BY INTERNATIONAL COURTS317

15 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL TRIBUNALS317

15.1 Abortive early attempts (1919-1945)317

15.2 The Nuremberg and Tokyo Tribunals (1945-1947)319

15.3 The work of the ILC (1950-1954)323

15.4 The Post-Cold War 'new world order' and the establishment of ad hoc Tribunals (1993-1994)324

15.5 The drafting and adoption of the Statute of the ICC (1994-1998)328

15.6 Other criminal tribunals330

16 INTERNATIONAL VERSUS NATIONAL JURISDICTION336

16.1 Primacy and complementarity336

16.2 The primacy of international ad hoc Tribunals339

16.3 The complementarity of the ICC342

16.4 The Nuremberg scheme versus the ICC scheme344

16.5 The need for State cooperation346

16.6 Models of cooperation346

16.7 Cooperation of States under the ICTY and ICTR scheme347

16.8 Cooperation of States under the ICC scheme349

16.9 The question of surrender of nationals351

17 THE ADOPTION OF THE ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF THE ADVERSARIAL SYSTEM353

17.1 The adversarial versus the inquisitorial system: general353

17.2 How the two models work: a comparison355

17.3 The transposition of the adversarial model on to the international legal level366

17.4 The principal elements of the inquisitorial model incorporated into international procedure371

17.5 Towards a 'mixed' procedural model376

18 GENERAL PRINCIPLES GOVERNING INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL TRIALS378

18.1 The nature and role of principles378

18.2 The principle that judges must be independent and impartial379

18.3 The presumption of innocence380

18.4 The principle of fair and expeditious trial383

18.5 The principle that the accused should be present at his trial389

19 STAGES OF INTERNATIONAL PROCEEDINGS IN OUTLINE I PRE-TRIAL AND TRIAL395

(A) PROSECUTOR'S INVESTIGATIONS AND PRE-TRIAL PROCEEDINGS395

19.1 General395

19.2 The setting in motion of international criminal investigations395

19.3 Conditions the prosecutor must fulfil before initiating an investigation397

19.4 Conduct of investigations by the prosecutor400

19.5 Pre-trial proceedings407

(B) TRIAL PROCEEDINGS409

19.6 Case presentation409

19.7 Rules of evidence413

19.8 Control of proceedings417

19.9 Deliberations418

19.10 Sentencing420

19.11 Reparation or compensation to victims422

20 APPEALS AND ENFORCEMENT424

20.1 General424

(A) appeals425

20.2 Appeals against interlocutory decisions425

20.3 Appeals against judgment or sentence427

(B) review429

20.4 Review of judgment or sentence429

20.5 Review of other final decisions430

(C) ENFORCEMENT OF SENTENCES431

20.6 Place of imprisonment431

20.7 Conditions of detention431

20.8 Reduction or commutation of sentence and pardon432

20.9 Supervision of imprisonment434

21 THE SPECIFICITY OF INTERNATIONAL TRIALS435

21.1 The need for international trials435

21.2 Merits of international criminal justice438

21.3 The main traits of international criminal proceedings440

21.4 Main problems besetting international criminal proceedings442

Index445