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The Authors3

List of Abbreviations17

Introduction19

Ⅰ.GENERAL OBSERVATIONS19

Ⅱ.GENERAL BACKGROUND23

1.Geography23

A.Size23

B.Boundaries23

2.Industrial Resources23

A.Transportation23

B.Physical Resources24

3.Governmental Structure24

A.Formal Federal Structure24

1.Executive Branch25

2.Legislative Branch25

3.Judicial Branch26

4.Administrative Agencies28

B.Formal State Governmental Structures29

C.Constitutionally Protected Liberties30

4.Political Structure30

5.The Bureaucracy32

6.The People32

A.Generally32

B.The Workforce36

C.Income Distribution38

D.Union Membership41

Ⅲ.SPECIAL DEFINITIONS AND NOTIONS43

1.Degree of Government Intervention43

2.Incomes Policy43

3.Labor Law44

4.Jurisdiction45

5.Employee46

6.Exclusivity and Majoritarian Principles47

7.Bargaining Units48

8.Public and Private Sector Employment48

9.Collective Agreements and Contracts of Hire49

Ⅳ.HISTORIC BACKGROUND51

1.Growth of Constitutional Government51

2.Growth of the Labor Movement52

A.Development52

B.Unions Today53

3.Development of Federal Labor Legislation53

A.Early Constitutional Struggle54

B.Development of Modern Labor Legislation55

1.Railway Labor Act55

2.Norris-LaGuardia Act56

3.National Labor Relations Act58

C.Other Labor Legislation60

1.Fair Labor Standards Act60

2.Other Federal Wage-Hour Laws62

3.Protection from Job Injury63

4.Social Security Acts and Retirement Benefits64

5.Unemployment Insurance65

6.Employment Discrimination67

Ⅴ.THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT IN SHAPING AND ADMINISTERING EMPLOYMENT LAW AND LABOR RELATIONS POLICY69

Ⅵ.SOURCES OF LABOR AND EMPLOYMENT LAW71

1.Judicial Authority and Case Precedent71

2.Constitution72

3.Common Law72

4.Legislation72

5.Administrative Processes72

6.Executive Fiat73

7.Collective Bargaining73

8.Arbitration Awards74

Ⅶ.SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY75

1.Texts75

2.Looseleaf Texts and Reports77

3.Government Publications77

4.Periodicals78

Part Ⅰ.The Individual Employment Relationship79

CHAPTER 1.CONCEPTS79

1.Law of Master-Servant79

Ⅰ.The Status of Master-Servant79

Ⅱ.Employee Status Contrasted with Other Relationships80

Ⅲ.Who is the Employer?81

2.Basic Characteristics of Employment Contracts83

Ⅰ.Generally83

Ⅱ.Capacity to Enter into an Employment Contract84

Ⅲ.Void, Illegal, and Unenforceable Employment Contracts86

A.Peonage and Slavery86

B.Unlawful Occupations86

C.Licensed Trades and Professions86

D.Apprenticeship87

E.Yellow-Dog Agreements87

F.Statutes of Frauds87

Ⅳ.Renewal of the Employment Contract89

Ⅴ.Misrepresentation89

Ⅵ.Termination of Employment89

A.Breach of Contract or Exercise of the Right to Rescind89

B.Enforcement of Employment Handbooks93

C.Good Faith and Fair Dealing94

D.Interference with a Fundamental Individual Privilege or Responsibility Recognized by Public Policy97

E.Whistleblower Protection99

F.Collateral Sources of Relief for Wrongfully Dismissed Workers101

G.Limits on the Right to Quit104

H.Illness or Injury105

I.Impossibility of Performance105

Ⅶ.Notice of Termination106

Ⅷ.Remedies for Breach of Employment Contracts107

A.Damages107

B.Other Remedies108

3.Special Employment Relations110

Ⅰ.Seafarers110

Ⅱ.Government Employees111

A.Constitutional Rights111

B.Civil Service Laws113

CHAPTER 2.RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF THE PARTIES UNDER INDIVIDUAL EMPLOYMENT CONTRACTS118

1.Express and Implied Terms118

2.The Employer's Right to the Employee's Work Product118

Ⅰ.Earnings Generated by the Worker118

Ⅱ.Interference with the Worker's Devotion to the Employer's Well-Being119

Ⅲ.Property in Dispute between an Employer and Worker119

A.Property Found by the Worker119

B.Worker Inventions120

C.Worker Creations120

Ⅳ.Worker's Duty not to Appropriate a Former Employer's Property122

A.Protection of Trade Secrets122

B.Covenants Not to Compete with a Former Employer124

3.The Employer's Responsibility for the Worker's Health,Safety and Property126

Ⅰ.Protection of tfie Worker126

A.Common Law126

B.Statutory Modifications of the Common Law127

C.Tribunal for Determining Liability and Damages130

D.Scope of the Employer's Liability130

Ⅱ.Protection of the Worker's Property, Dignity and Privacy132

Ⅲ.Employer-supplied Income Protection when a Worker is Unavailable for Work141

Ⅳ.Retirement Benefits149

Ⅴ.Employer-financed Health Care Benefits152

Ⅶ.Regulation of Employer Benefit Plans154

Ⅶ.Safety and Health Standards159

4.Employer's Responsibility for the Worker's Wrongdoing161

5.Worker's Liability for Wrongs Committed in the Course of Employment162

6.Work Schedules163

CHAPTER 3.REMUNERATION AND BENEFITS164

1.Basic Concepts164

Ⅰ.Usage of Terms 'Salary' and 'Wage'164

Ⅱ.Rate of Compensation164

2.Pay165

Ⅰ.Time when Wage is Due165

Ⅱ.Compensation in the Form of a Commission165

Ⅲ.Parent's Compensation of Child for Work Performed166

Ⅳ.Gratuities166

Ⅴ.Reimbursement of Expenses167

Ⅵ.Paid Vacations167

Ⅶ.Bonuses and Awards169

Ⅷ.Priority Rights to Wages in Insolvency Proceedings170

CHAPTER 4.EQUAL EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITY172

1.Concept172

2.The Reconstruction Era Civil Rights Acts173

Ⅰ.Generally173

Ⅱ.Section 1981173

Ⅲ.Section 1983175

3.Title Ⅶ of the Civil Rights Act of 1964178

Ⅰ.Disparate Treatment Theory179

Ⅱ.Bona Fide Occupational Qualifications181

Ⅲ.Affirmative Action182

Ⅳ.Disparate Impact184

Ⅴ.Pregnancy Discrimination186

Ⅵ.Sexual Harassment187

Ⅶ.Sexual Orientation189

Ⅷ.National Origin Claims189

Ⅸ.Religious Discrimination189

Ⅹ.Retaliation191

4.The Age Discrimination in Employment Act192

Ⅰ.Disparate Treatment Theory193

Ⅱ.Disparate Impact194

Ⅲ.Retirement Incentives195

Ⅳ.Waiver195

5.Americans with Disabilities Act195

Ⅰ.The Definition of Disability196

Ⅱ.Qualified Individual with a Disability198

Ⅲ.Medical Examinations199

6.The Equal Pay Act200

7.Protection of Military Reservists and Veterans202

Part Ⅱ.Collective Labor Relations203

CHAPTER 1.THE IMPACT OF COLLECTIVE BARGAINING ON WORKER BENEFITS203

1.The Paramount Importance of Collective Bargaining203

2.Compensation Comparison between Organized and Unorganized Workers203

CHAPTER 2.FREEDOM TO ORGANIZE AND OBTAIN MUTUAL AID206

1.The Right to Engage in or Refrain from Concerted Activity206

Ⅰ.The Basic Policy of the National Labor Relations Act206

Ⅱ.Prohibition against Interference with the Right to Organize207

A.Coercion to Engage in or Refrain from Engaging in Concerted Activity208

B.Distinguishing between Coercive Expression and Protected Expression209

2.Preserving Laboratory Conditions for Representation Elections211

3.Prohibition against Promises or Benefits as an Inducement to Refrain from Exercising Section 7 Rights213

4.Unlawful Discrimination Based on Union Membership214

Ⅰ.Generally214

Ⅱ.Runaway Shops217

A.Generally217

B.Termination of Business and Partial Closings218

Ⅲ.Union Hiring Halls218

Ⅳ.Union Security and Preferred Status219

Ⅴ.Remedying Unlawful Discrimination222

5.Unlawful Interference with Labor Organizations223

Ⅰ.Employer Domination or Interference223

Ⅱ.Employer Assistance226

Ⅲ.Remedial Distinction between Domination and Interference227

Ⅳ.Limits on Supervisory Participation in a Labor Organization227

Ⅴ.Recognition of a Minority Union229

Ⅵ.The Employer's Duty of Neutrality between Competing Unions231

6.Balancing the Employer's Property Interests against the Workers'Statutory Rights236

Ⅰ.Generally236

Ⅱ.Employees have a Limited Right to Organize Fellow Workers on the Employer's Premises236

Ⅲ.Circumstances under Which Non-employees Can Organize on Employer's Premises238

Ⅳ.Union Access to Worker Names and Addresses240

7.Legal Restrictions on Obtaining Support from Others241

Ⅰ.Organizational and Recognitional Picketing241

Ⅱ.Prohibited Secondary and Sympathetic Activities245

A.Constitutional Protection of Appeals for Support from the Public or from Sympathetic Employers245

B.Limitations on Appeals for Support or Sympathy249

8.Access to the NLRB and Other Tribunals264

CHAPTER 3.LABOR UNIONS, EMPLOYEE ASSOCIATIONS AND EMPLOYER ORGANIZATIONS266

1.Worker Organizations266

Ⅰ.Unions266

Ⅱ.Employee Associations268

Ⅲ.AFL-CIO269

2.Regulation of Internal Union Affairs271

Ⅰ.Basic Union Structure271

A.The Local Union271

B.Regional Divisions273

C.The National Organization274

Ⅱ.The Law of Private Associations275

Ⅲ.Regulation of Internal Union Affairs under the LMRDA276

A.The Right to Vote277

B.Freedom of Expression278

C.Freedom of Assembly and Other Internal Management280

D.Right to Sue the Union280

E.Right to Full and Fair Hearing282

F.Union's Duty to Inform Members283

G.Right to Local Self-Determination284

Ⅳ.Restraints upon the Use of Union Funds286

A.Union Funds Used for Union Elections286

B.Union Funds Used for Political Activities287

C.Other Expenditures of Union Funds291

Ⅴ.The Union's Duty of Fair Representation291

A.NLRB Enforcement of the Duty of Fair Representation292

B.Private Suit for Enforcement of the Duty of Fair Representation295

C.Standard of Conduct under the Duty of Fair Representation297

3.Employer Associations299

Ⅰ.National Organizations299

A.Generally299

B.Chamber of Commerce301

C.National Association of Manufacturers302

Ⅱ.Multi-employer Bargaining302

A.The Process302

B.Antitrust Limitations304

CHAPTER 4.WORKER PARTICIPATION IN MANAGEMENT THROUGH COLLECTIVE BARGAINING307

1.Written, Comprehensive Agreements of Specific Duration307

2.The Duty to Bargain Collectively307

Ⅰ.Mandatory and Non-Mandatory Topics for Collective Bargaining308

Ⅱ.Maintaining the Status Quo until there is a Bargaining Impasse309

Ⅲ.Notice of Intention to Modify Collective Agreement310

Ⅳ.Resort to Pressure Tactics as Part of the Bargaining Process310

3.Regulation of Bargaining Table Conduct311

4.Bargaining Practices314

Ⅰ.Reliance on Work Stoppages314

Ⅱ.Sequence of Events in Collective Bargaining315

Ⅲ.Strike Insurance and Other Mutual Aid317

5.Bargaining in the Public Sector319

Ⅰ.State and Local Employment319

Ⅱ.Federal Employment321

A.Postal Employees321

B.Federal Workers Other than Postal Employees322

6.The Impact of the NLRB upon the Bargaining Structure324

Ⅰ.Generally324

Ⅱ.Examples of Bargaining Structures327

Ⅲ.NLRB's Power to Stabilize Bargaining Unit Structure329

Ⅳ.Bargaining Unit Size331

7.Bargaining Structure in Public Employment331

Ⅰ.State and Local Employment331

Ⅱ.Federal Employment333

8.Scope and Coverage of Collective Agreements334

Ⅰ.Duration334

A.Length334

B.Automatic Renewal and Intervals between Contracts335

C.Reopener Clauses336

Ⅱ.Parties to the Collective Agreement337

A.Generally337

B.Change of Union337

C.Change in Enterprise Ownership338

Ⅲ.Union Security Arrangements343

A.Closed Shop, Union Shop, Agency Shop, OtherVariations343

B.Hiring Halls346

C.Dues Check-off346

D.Public Sector Union Security Provisions347

Ⅳ.Contractual Status of Probationary Workers348

Ⅴ.Wages348

A.Generally348

B.Scheduled Wage Increases348

C.Cost-of-living Increases349

D.Merit Increases349

E.Pay Differences Based on Working Conditions349

F.Work Incentive Schemes350

Ⅵ.Work Schedules and Premium Pay350

A.Work Hours and Schedules350

B.Work Shifts351

C.Meal Periods351

D.Rest Periods351

E.Holidays and Other Leaves of Absence352

F.Vacations353

G.Premium Pay355

Ⅶ.Insurance and Pension Benefits356

A.Life, Accident and Health Insurance356

B.Negotiated Retirement Benefits357

Ⅷ.Job Security358

A.Restraints upon Disciplinary Action358

B.Seniority359

C.Transfer of Operations, Training and Retraining362

Ⅸ.Paid Sick Leave365

Ⅹ.Working Conditions and Safety365

Ⅺ.Strikes and Lock-outs - Peace Clauses366

Ⅻ.Conflict Resolution Machinery368

A.Grievance Procedures368

B.Arbitration369

ⅩⅢ.Management and Union Rights and Zipper Provisions370

A.Management Rights370

B.Union Rights370

C.Zipper Provisions371

ⅩⅣ.Pay without Work - Featherbedding372

9.Effect of Bankruptcy on the Collective Agreement373

10.Alternative Methods of Worker Participation375

CHAPTER 5.INDUSTRIAL ACTION377

1.Right to Strike377

Ⅰ.Generally377

Ⅱ.Public Employees380

Ⅲ.Rights and Risks of Private Sector Strikers382

A.Right to Replace Strikers382

B.Rights of Strikers and Returning Strikers385

C.Strikes in Violation of Statutory Notice Requirements386

D.Strikes without Union Approval387

E.Peace Clauses - Waiver of the Right to Strike389

F.Work Stoppages due to Unsafe or Unhealthy Conditions391

G.Striker Misconduct392

H.Partial Strikes and Specially Timed Strikes396

I.Unlawful Strikes397

J.Injunction against Stoppages in Emergency Circumstances398

2.Right to Refrain from Striking398

3.Employer's Right to Lock out Workers401

4.Appeals for Sympathetic Support404

Part Ⅲ.Machinery for Enforcing Labor Laws407

CHAPTER 1.THE NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS ACT407

1.The Structure407

2.The NRLB's Jurisdiction409

3.Determining whether a Union is the Exclusive Bargaining Agent410

Ⅰ.NLRB Representation Proceeding410

Ⅱ.Alternatives to NLRB Election Proceedings416

Ⅲ.Removal of Union's Representational Status417

4.Unfair Labor Practice Procedures419

Ⅰ.Unfair Labor Practice Charge and Complaint420

Ⅱ.Hearing421

Ⅲ.Unfair Labor Practice Remedies421

Ⅳ.NLRB Review of Hearing Decision423

Ⅴ.Judicial Review in Unfair Labor Practice Cases424

Ⅵ.Case Handling Efficiency426

5.Injunction against Misconduct427

Ⅰ.Generally427

Ⅱ.Section 10(j) Injunction427

Ⅲ.Injunctions against Alleged Unlawful Union Pressure on Neutral Employers428

6.Determination of Disputes Concerning Group Work Assignments429

7.Money Damages for Unlawful Secondary Activity431

CHAPTER 2.LMRA's PREEMPTION OF SUITS AFFECTING COLLECTIVE ACTIVITIES433

1.The Preemption Concept433

2.Suits to Enforce Collective Agreements434

3.Suits to Remedy a Breach of the Duty of Fair Representation436

4.Other Court Actions437

CHAPTER 3.RESOLUTION OF DISPUTES THAT THREATEN WELFARE438

CHAPTER 4.FEDERAL MEDIATION AND CONCILIATION SERVICE440

CHAPTER 5.ENFORCEMENT OF PROHIBITED UNION - MANAGEMENT TRANSACTIONS AND STATUTORY PROTECTION OF UNION MEMBERS443

1.Office of Labor - Management Services443

Ⅰ.Enforcement of Regulations Governing the Election of Union Officials443

Ⅱ.Enforcement of Restrictions on Union Trusteeships444

Ⅲ.Enforcement of Information Reporting Requirements444

Ⅳ.Investigative Power of the Department of Labor444

Ⅴ.Enforcement of the Employee's Right to See the Collective Agreement445

2.Criminal Sanctions and Other Remedies445

Ⅰ.LMRDA Violations445

Ⅱ.LMRA Violations445

Ⅲ.Other Statutes446

3.Public Information Regarding Union Activities446

4.Private Actions by Union Members447

CHAPTER 6.RAILWAY LABOR ACT ENFORCEMENT MACHINERY448

1.Generally448

2.National Mediation Board448

Ⅰ.Determining a Union's Representational Status448

Ⅱ.Unfair Labor Practice Proceedings450

Ⅲ.'Major Disputes' - NMB Process for Changing Terms and Conditions of Employment450

Ⅳ.Emergency Dispute Machinery under the RLA452

Ⅴ.'Minor Disputes' - Resolving Grievances Respecting the Application of Terms and Conditions of Rail and Air Industry Employment452

A.National Railroad Adjustment Board453

B.Special Boards of Adjustment454

C.Public Law 89-456 Boards454

D.Enforcement of Minor Dispute Awards454

CHAPTER 7.ARBITRATION OF DISPUTES ARISING UNDER COLLECTIVE AGREEMENTS456

1.Generally456

2.Tribunal Formats456

3.Selecting an Ad Hoc Arbitrator457

4.Costs, Efficiency, and Utilization459

5.The Arbitration Hearing460

CHAPTER 8.REGULATION OF COLLECTIVE REPRESENTATION OF FEDERAL WORKERS462

1.Postal Workers462

2.Other Federal Workers462

Ⅰ.Federal Labor Relations Authority462

Ⅱ.Federal Service Impasses Panel463

Ⅲ.Grievance-arbitration Process464

CHAPTER 9.ENFORCEMENT OF FEDERAL WAGE-HOUR LAWS465

1.Generally465

2.Setting Minimum Wages466

3.Back Pay Settlements467

4.FLSA Enforcement by the Worker467

5.FLSA Enforcement by the Department of Labor468

6.Enforcement of Government Contractor and Grantee Wage Laws469

CHAPTER 10.ENFORCEMENT OF THE OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ACT471

1.Generally471

2.Establishment of Health and Safety Standards472

3.Federal Enforcement of Health and Safety Standards473

Ⅰ.Investigation473

Ⅱ.Civil Fines and Abatement Orders475

A.Citations and Notification of Proposed Penalties475

B.Appeal to the OSHRC477

C.Judicial Review of the OSHRC Decision477

D.Constitutionality of Civil Penalty Procedure478

Ⅲ.Injunctive Relief478

Ⅳ.Criminal Sanctions478

4.State Regulations of Occupational Safety and Health479

CHAPTER 11.ENFORCEMENT OF EQUAL EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITY481

1.Equal Employment Opportunity Commission481

Ⅰ.Commission481

Ⅱ.General Counsel of the EEOC482

Ⅲ.EEOC Regulations and Guidelines482

Ⅳ.Processing a Charge of Discrimination under Title Ⅶ and the ADA482

A.Filing a Charge of Discrimination482

B.Suit by the EEOC484

C.Suit by an Individual484

D.Remedies485

E.Federal Sector Procedures under Title Ⅶ and the Rehabilitation Act486

Ⅴ.Processing a Charge of Discrimination under the ADEA487

A.Filing a Charge of Discrimination487

B.Remedies487

Ⅵ.Alternative Dispute Resolution487

CHAPTER 12.ENFORCEMENT OF THE WORKER ADJUSTMENT AND RETRAINING ACT492

CHAPTER 13.ENFORCEMENT OF THE FAMILY AND MEDICAL LEAVE ACT493

Part Ⅳ.Extraterritoriality (Choice of Law)495

CHAPTER 1.PROBLEMS OF EXTRATERRITORIALITY AMONG THE STATES495

CHAPTER 2.THE LAW OF OTHER NATIONS APPLIED IN THE US498

CHAPTER 3.APPLYING US LAW BEYOND ITS BORDERS499

CHAPTER 4.APPLYING US LAW TO FOREIGN NATIONALS WITHIN ITS BORDERS501

CHAPTER 5.US COURT APPLICATION OF THE LAW OF NATIONS505

Table of Cases507

Index521