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Chapter 1 Engine Types and Their Operation1

1.1 Introduction and Historical Perspective1

1.2 Engine Classifications7

1.3 Engine Operating Cycles9

1.4 Engine Components12

1.5 Spark-Ignition Engine Operation15

1.6 Examples of Spark-Ignition Engines19

1.7 Compression-Ignition Engine Operation25

1.8 Examples of Diesel Engines31

1.9 Stratified-Charge Engines37

Chapter 2 Engine Design and Operating Parameters42

2.1 Important Engine Characteristics42

2.2 Geometrical Properties of Reciprocating Engines43

2.3 Brake Torque and Power45

2.4 Indicated Work Per Cycle46

2.5 Mechanical Efficiency48

2.6 Road-Load Power49

2.7 Mean Effective Pressure50

2.8 Specific Fuel Consumption and Efficiency51

2.9 Air/Fuel and Fuel/Air Ratios53

2.10 Volumetric Efficiency53

2.11 Engine Specific Weight and Specific Volume54

2.12 Correction Factors for Power and Volumetric Efficiency54

2.13 Specific Emissions and Emissions Index56

2.14 Relationships between Performance Parameters56

2.15 Engine Design and Performance Data57

Chapter 3 Thermochemistry of Fuel-Air Mixtures62

3.1 Characterization of Flames62

3.2 Ideal Gas Model64

3.3 Composition of Air and Fuels64

3.4 Combustion Stoichiometry68

3.5 The First Law of Thermodynamics and Combustion72

3.5.1 Energy and Enthalpy Balances72

3.5.2 Enthalpies of Formation76

3.5.3 Heating Values78

3.5.4 Adiabatic Combustion Processes80

3.5.5 Combustion Efficiency of an Internal Combustion Engine81

3.6 The Second Law of Thermodynamics Applied to Combustion83

3.6.1 Entropy83

3.6.2 Maximum Work from an Internal Combustion Engine and Efficiency83

3.7 Chemically Reacting Gas Mixtures85

3.7.1 Chemical Equilibrium86

3.7.2 Chemical Reaction Rates92

Chapter 4 Properties of Working Fluids100

4.1 Introduction100

4.2 Unburned Mixture Composition102

4.3 Gas Property Relationships107

4.4 A Simple Analytic Ideal Gas Model109

4.5 Thermodynamic Charts112

4.5.1 Unburned Mixture Charts112

4.5.2 Burned Mixture Charts116

4.5.3 Relation between Unburned and Burned Mixture Charts123

4.6 Tables of Properties and Composition127

4.7 Computer Routines for Property and Composition Calculations130

4.7.1 Unburned Mixtures130

4.7.2 Burned Mixtures135

4.8 Transport Properties141

4.9 Exhaust Gas Composition145

4.9.1 Species Concentration Data145

4.9.2 Equivalence Ratio Determination from Exhaust Gas Constituents148

4.9.3 Effects of Fuel/Air Ratio Nonuniformity152

4.9.4 Combustion Inefficiency154

Chapter 5 Ideal Models of Engine Cycles161

5.1 Introduction161

5.2 Ideal Models of Engine Processes162

5.3 Thermodynamic Relations for Engine Processes164

5.4 Cycle Analysis with Ideal Gas Working Fluid with c v and c p Constant169

5.4.1 Constant-Volume Cycle169

5.4.2 Limited- and Constant-Pressure Cycles172

5.4.3 Cycle Comparison173

5.5 Fuel-Air Cycle Analysis177

5.5.1 SI Engine Cycle Simulation178

5.5.2 CI Engine Cycle Simulation180

5.5.3 Results of Cycle Calculations181

5.6 Overexpanded Engine Cycles183

5.7 Availability Analysis of Engine Processes186

5.7.1 Availability Relationships186

5.7.2 Entropy Changes in Ideal Cycles188

5.7.3 Availability Analysis of Ideal Cycles189

5.7.4 Effect of Equivalence Ratio192

5.8 Comparison with Real Engine Cycles193

Chapter 6 Gas Exchange Processes205

6.1 Inlet and Exhaust Prccesses in the Four-Stroke Cycle206

6.2 Volumetric Efficiency209

6.2.1 Quasi-Static Effects209

6.2.2 Combined Quasi-Static and Dynamic Effects212

6.2.3 Variation with Speed，and Valve Area，Lift，and Timing216

6.3 Flow Through Valves220

6.3.1 Poppet Valve Geometry and Timing220

6.3.2 Flow Rate and Discharge Coefficients225

6.4 Residual Gas Fraction230

6.5 Exhaust Gas Flow Rate and Temperature Variation231

6.6 Scavenging in Two-Stroke Cycle Engines235

6.6.1 Two-Stroke Engine Configurations235

6.6.2 Scavenging Parameters and Models237

6.6.3 Actual Scavenging Processes240

6.7 Flow Through Ports245

6.8 Supercharging and Turbocharging248

6.8.1 Methods of Power Boosting248

6.8.2 Basic Relationships249

6.8.3 Compressors255

6.8.4 Turbines263

6.8.5 Wave-Compression Devices270

Chapter 7 SI Engine Fuel Metering and Manifold Phenomena279

7.1 Spark-Ignition Engine Mixture Requirements279

7.2 Carburetors282

7.2.1 Carburetor Fundamentals282

7.2.2 Modern Carburetor Design285

7.3 Fuel-Injection Systems294

7.3.1 Multipoint Port Injection294

7.3.2 Single-Point Throttle-Body Injection299

7.4 Feedback Systems301

7.5 Flow Past Throttle Plate304

7.6 Flow in Intake Manifolds308

7.6.1 Design Requirements308

7.6.2 Air-Flow Phenomena309

7.6.3 Fuel-Flow Phenomena314

Chapter 8 Charge Motion within the Cylinder326

8.1 Intake Jet Flow326

8.2 Mean Velocity and Turbulence Characteristics330

8.2.1 Definitions330

8.2.2 Application to Engine Velocity Data336

8.3 Swirl342

8.3.1 Swirl Measurement343

8.3.2 Swirl Generation during Induction345

8.3.3 Swirl Modification within the Cylinder349

8.4 Squish353

8.5 Prechamber Engine Flows357

8.6 Crevice Flows and Blowby360

8.7 Flows Generated by Piston-Cylinder Wall Interaction365

Chapter 9 Combustion in Spark-Ignition Engines371

9.1 Essential Features of Process371

9.2 Thermodynamic Analysis of SI Engine Combustion376

9.2.1 Burned and Unburned Mixture States376

9.2.2 Analysis of Cylinder Pressure Data383

9.2.3 Combustion Process Characterization389

9.3 Flame Structure and Speed390

9.3.1 Experimental Observations390

9.3.2 Flame Structure395

9.3.3 Laminar Burning Speeds402

9.3.4 Flame Propagation Relations406

9.4 Cyclic Variations in Combustion，Partial Burning，and Misfire413

9.4.1 Observations and Definitions413

9.4.2 Causes of Cycle-by-Cycle and Cylinder-to-Cylinder Variations419

9.4.3 Partial Burning，Misfire，and Engine Stability424

9.5 Spark Ignition427

9.5.1 Ignition Fundamentals427

9.5.2 Conventional Ignition Systems437

9.5.3 Alternative Ignition Approaches443

9.6 Abnormal Combustion：Knock and Surface Ignition450

9.6.1 Description of Phenomena450

9.6.2 Knock Fundamentals457

9.6.3 Fuel Factors470

Chapter 10 Combustion in Compression-Ignition Engines491

10.1 Essential Features of Process491

10.2 Types of Diesel Combustion Systems493

10.2.1 Direct-Injection Systems493

10.2.2 Indirect-Injection Systems494

10.2.3 Comparison of Different Combustion Systems495

10.3 Phenomenological Model of Compression-Ignition Engine Combustion497

10.3.1 Photographic Studies of Engine Combustion497

10.3.2 Combustion in Direct-Injection，Multispray Systems503

10.3.3 Application of Model to Other Combustion Systems506

10.4 Analysis of Cylinder Pressure Data508

10.4.1 Combustion Efficiency509

10.4.2 Direct-Injection Engines509

10.4.3 Indirect-Injection Engines514

10.5 Fuel Spray Behavior517

10.5.1 Fuel Injection517

10.5.2 Overall Spray Structure522

10.5.3 Atomization525

10.5.4 Spray Penetration529

10.5.5 Droplet Size Distribution532

10.5.6 Spray Evaporation535

10.6 Ignition Delay539

10.6.1 Definition and Discussion539

10.6.2 Fuel Ignition Quality541

10.6.3 Autoignition Fundamentals542

10.6.4 Physical Factors Affecting Delay546

10.6.5 Effect of Fuel Properties550

10.6.6 Correlations for Ignition Delay in Engines553

10.7 Mixing-Controlled Combustion555

10.7.1 Background555

10.7.2 Spray and Flame Structure555

10.7.3 Fuel-Air Mixing and Burning Rates558

Chapter 11 Pollutant Formation and Control567

11.1 Nature and Extent of Problem567

11.2 Nitrogen Oxides572

11.2.1 Kinetics of NO Formation572

11.2.2 Formation of NO2577

11.2.3 NO Formation in Spark-Ignition Engines578

11.2.4 NOx Formation in Compression-Ignition Engines586

11.3 Carbon Monoxide592

11.4 Unburned Hydrocarbon Emissions596

11.4.1 Background596

11.4.2 Flame Quenching and Oxidation Fundamentals599

11.4.3 HC Emissions from Spark-Ignition Engines601

11.4.4 Hydrocarbon Emission Mechanisms in Diesel Engines620

11.5 Particulate Emissions626

11.5.1 Spark-Ignition Engine Particulates626

11.5.2 Characteristics of Diesel Particulates626

11.5.3 Particulate Distribution within the Cylinder631

11.5.4 Soot Formation Fundamentals635

11.5.5 Soot Oxidation642

11.5.6 Adsorption and Condensation646

11.6 Exhaust Gas Treatment648

11.6.1 Available Options648

11.6.2 Catalytic Converters649

11.6.3 Thermal Reactors657

11.6.4 Particulate Traps659

Chapter 12 Engine Heat Transfer668

12.1 Importance of Heat Transfer668

12.2 Modes of Heat Transfer670

12.2.1 Conduction670

12.2.2 Convection670

12.2.3 Radiation671

12.2.4 Overall Heat-Transfer Process671

12.3 Heat Transfer and Engine Energy Balance673

12.4 Convective Heat Transfer676

12.4.1 Dimensional Analysis676

12.4.2 Correlations for Time-Averaged Heat Flux677

12.4.3 Correlations for Instantaneous Spatial Average Coefficients678

12.4.4 Correlations for Instantaneous Local Coefficients681

12.4.5 Intake and Exhaust System Heat Transfer682

12.5 Radiative Heat Transfer683

12.5.1 Radiation from Gases683

12.5.2 Flame Radiation684

12.5.3 Prediction Formulas688

12.6 Measurements of Instantaneous Heat-Transfer Rates689

12.6.1 Measurement Methods689

12.6.2 Spark-Ignition Engine Measurements690

12.6.3 Diesel Engine Measurements692

12.6.4 Evaluation of Heat-Transfer Correlations694

12.6.5 Boundary-Layer Behavior697

12.7 Thermal Loading and Component Temperatures698

12.7.1 Component Temperature Distributions698

12.7.2 Effect of Engine Variables701

Chapter 13 Eng ne Friction and Lubrication712

13.1 Background712

13.2 Definitions714

13.3 Friction Fundamentals715

13.3.1 Lubricated Friction715

13.3.2 Turbulent Dissipation719

13.3.3 Total Friction719

13.4 Measurement Methods719

13.5 Engine Friction Data722

13.5.1 SI Engines722

13.5.2 Diesel Engines724

13.6 Engine Friction Components725

13.6.1 Motored Engine Breakdown Tests725

13.6.2 Pumping Friction726

13.6.3 Piston Assembly Friction729

13.6.4 Crankshaft Bearing Friction734

13.6.5 Valve Train Friction737

13.7 Accessory Power Requirements739

13.8 Lubrication740

13.8.1 Lubrication System740

13.8.2 Lubricant Requirements741

Chapter 14 Modeling Real Engine Flow and Combustion Processes748

14.1 Purpose and Classification of Models748

14.2 Governing Equations for Open Thermodynamic System750

14.2.1 Conservation of Mass750

14.2.2 Conservation of Energy751

14.3 Intake and Exhaust Flow Models753

14.3.1 Background753

14.3.2 Quasi-Steady Flow Models753

14.3.3 Filling and Emptying Methods754

14.3.4 Gas Dynamic Models756

14.4 Thermodynamic-Based In-Cylinder Models762

14.4.1 Background and Overall Model Structure762

14.4.2 Spark-Ignition Engine Models766

14.4.3 Direct-Injection Engine Models778

14.4.4 Prechamber Engine Models784

14.4.5 Multicylinder and Complex Engine System Models789

14.4.6 Second Law Analysis of Engine Processes792

14.5 Fluid-Mechanic-Based Multidimensional Models797

14.5.1 Basic Approach and Governing Equations797

14.5.2 Turbulence Models800

14.5.3 Numerical Methodology803

14.5.4 Flow Field Predictions807

14.5.5 Fuel Spray Modeling813

14.5.6 Combustion Modeling816

Chapter 15 Engine Operating Characteristics823

15.1 Engine Performance Parameters823

15.2 Indicated and Brake Power and MEP824

15.3 Operating Variables That Affect SI Engine Performance，Efficiency，and Emissions827

15.3.1 Spark Timing827

15.3.2 Mixture Composition829

15.3.3 Load and Speed839

15.3.4 Compression Ratio841

15.4 SI Engine Combustion Chamber Design844

15.4.1 Design Objectives and Options844

15.4.2 Factors That Control Combustion846

15.4.3 Factors That Control Performance850

15.4.4 Chamber Octane Requirement852

15.4.5 Chamber Optimization Strategy857

15.5 Variables That Affect CI Engine Performance，Efficiency，and Emissions858

15.5.1 Load and Speed858

15.5.2 Fuel-Injection Parameters863

15.5.3 Air Swirl and Bowl-in-Piston Design866

15.6 Supercharged and Turbocharged Engine Performance869

15.6.1 Four-Stroke Cycle SI Engines869

15.6.2 Four-Stroke Cycle CI Engines874

15.6.3 Two-Stroke Cycle SI Engines881

15.6.4 Two-Stroke Cycle CI Engines883

15.7 Engine Performance Summary886

Appendixes899

A Unit Conversion Factors899

B Ideal Gas Relationships902

B.1 Ideal Gas Law902

B.2 The Mole903

B.3 Thermodynamic Properties903

B.4 Mixtures of Ideal Gases905

C Equations for Fluid Flow through a Restriction906

C.1 Liquid Flow907

C.2 Gas Flow907

D Data on Working Fluids911

Index917