ELEMENTS OF CRIMES UNDER INTERNATIONAL LAW VOLUME IIPDF|Epub|txt|kindle电子书版本网盘下载

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1 An overview of crimes under international law1

1.1 Legal sources for definitions of crimes under international law5

1.2 Structure of crimes under international law9

2 Crimes against humanity14

2.1 Evolution of crimes against humanity18

2.1.1 Development through the Second World War18

2.1.2 Post-Second World War development22

2.1.3 Developments through the ad hoc Tribunals and beyond26

2.2 Elements of crimes against humanity31

2.2.1 Requirements unique to the ad hoc tribunals32

2.2.1.1 ICTY： armed conflict as a jurisdictional requirement32

2.2.1.2 ICTR： discriminatory basis as a jurisdictional requirement33

2.2.2 General requirements35

2.2.2.1 Preliminary question： whose conduct and mental state may satisfy the contextual general requirements？35

2.2.2.2 The attack requirement41

2.2.2.3 The targeting requirement42

2.2.2.3.1 The definition of a ‘civilian’43

2.2.2.3.2 The definition of a ‘civilian population’49

2.2.2.3.3 The meaning of ‘directed against’50

2.2.2.4 The ‘widespread or systematic’ requirement51

2.2.2.5 The first contextual requirement： the underlying offence as part of the attack53

2.2.2.6 The second contextual requirement： the knowledge that the offence is part of the attack54

2.2.3 Underlying offences56

2.2.3.1 Murder57

2.2.3.2 Extermination60

2.2.3.3 Enslavement65

2.2.3.4 Deportation68

2.2.3.4.1 The displacement of persons was caused by expulsion or other coercive acts69

2.2.3.4.2 The persons displaced were lawfully present in the area70

2.2.3.4.3 The displacement occurred without grounds permitted under international law71

2.2.3.4.4 Is intent that the removal be permanent an element of forcible displacement？72

2.2.3.4.5 Additional element for deportation73

2.2.3.5 Imprisonment75

2.2.3.6 Torture78

2.2.3.6.1 The severity requirement80

2.2.3.6.2 The prohibited purpose requirement83

2.2.3.7 Rape84

2.2.3.8 Persecution on political， racial， and religious grounds88

2.2.3.8.1 Specific requirements for persecution as a crime against humanity89

The equal gravity requirement90

The requirement of discrimination ‘in fact’91

The discriminatory intent requirement94

2.2.3.8.2 Underlying offences qualifying as persecution as a crime against humanity97

2.2.3.9 Other inhumane acts99

2.2.3.9.1 Specific requirements for inhumane acts as crimes against humanity99

The suffering or attack on dignity requirement100

The similar gravity requirement101

The requirement of direct or indirect intent102

2.2.3.9.2 Underlying offences qualifying as inhumane acts as crimes against humanity102

2.3 Crimes against humanity in the International Criminal Court and Internationalised Tribunals104

2.3.1 The International Criminal Court104

2.3.1.1 The Rome Statute104

2.3.1.2 The elements of crimes110

2.3.2 The Internationalised Tribunals115

2.3.2.1 Special Court for Sierra Leone （SCSL）115

2.3.2.2 East Timor： Special Panels for Serious Crimes （SPSC）120

2.3.2.3 The Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia （ECCC）128

2.3.2.4 Supreme Iraqi Criminal Tribunal （SICT） （also known as the Iraqi High Tribunal （IHT））132

3 Genocide138

3.1 Evolution of genocide as an international crime144

3.1.1 Development through the Second World War144

3.1.2 Post-Second World War development146

3.1.3 Developments in the ad hoc Tribunals and beyond153

3.2 Elements of genocide154

3.2.1 General requirements156

3.2.1.1 Preliminary question： who must have the genocidal intent？157

3.2.1.2 Genocidal intent159

3.2.1.2.1 Specific intent160

3.2.1.2.2 Material destruction164

3.2.1.2.3 Definitions of the protected group and the targeted group168

3.2.1.3 Requirement of actual membership in the group？173

3.2.2 Underlying offences176

3.2.2.1 Killing178

3.2.2.1.1 Physical elements178

3.2.2.1.2 Mental element178

3.2.2.2 Causing serious bodily or mental harm181

3.2.2.2.1 Physical elements181

3.2.2.2.2 Mental element183

3.2.2.3 Deliberate infliction of eventually destructive conditions of life183

3.2.2.3.1 Examples of qualifying conduct183

3.2.2.3.2 Mental element？186

3.2.2.4 Prevention of births186

3.2.2.4.1 Examples of qualifying conduct186

3.2.2.4.2 Mental element？187

3.2.2.5 Forcible transfer of children187

3.2.2.5.1 Mental element？188

3.3 Elements of conspiracy to commit genocide188

3.4 Elements of direct and public incitement to commit genocide191

3.5 Elements of attempt to commit genocide197

3.6 Genocide in The International Criminal Court and Internationalised Tribunals198

3.6.1 The International Criminal Court198

3.6.1.1 The Rome Statute198

3.6.1.2 The Elements of Crimes201

3.6.2 The Internationalised Tribunals206

3.6.2.1 Special Court for Sierra Leone （SCSL）206

3.6.2.2 East Timor： Special Panels for Serious Crimes （SPSC）206

3.6.2.3 The Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia （ECCC）207

3.6.2.4 Supreme Iraqi Criminal Tribunal （SICT） （also known as the Iraqi High Tribunal （IHT））210

4 War crimes213

4.1 Evolution of war crimes219

4.1.1 Ancient to modern conceptions of war crimes219

4.1.2 The birth of modern international humanitarian law sanctioning war crimes223

4.1.3 The distinction between international and non- international armed conflict in war crimes law227

4.1.4 Contribution of the ad hoc Tribunals to the development of war crimes law230

4.2 Elements of war crimes232

4.2.1 General requirements for war crimes232

4.2.1.1 Existence of an armed conflict233

4.2.1.1.1 Is knowledge of the existence of the armed conflict an element of war crimes？236

4.2.1.2 Nexus between the underlying offence and the armed conflict239

4.2.1.3 Additional general requirements for grave breaches of the Geneva conventions： war crimes committed in international armed conflict243

4.2.1.3.1 The requirement of an international armed conflict244

Knowledge of the nature of the armed conflict248

4.2.1.3.2 The protected persons or property requirement250

4.2.1.4 Additional general requirement for violations of Common Article 3 and Additional Protocol Ⅱ under Article 4 of the ICTR Statute： war crimes committed in non-international armed conflict256

4.2.1.5 Additional general requirements for violations of the laws or customs of war under Article 3 of the ICTY Statute： war crimes committed in any armed conflict258

4.2.1.5.1 The alleged underlying offence infringes a rule of customary or conventional international humanitarian law260

4.2.1.5.2 The violation is ‘serious’262

4.2.1.5.3 The violation of the rule entails the individual criminal responsibility of the person breaching the rule262

4.2.1.5.4 Knowledge of status of targets of underlying offences263

4.2.2 Underlying offences263

4.2.2.1 Destruction of property264

4.2.2.1.1 Extensive destruction under Article 2（d） of ICTY Statute264

4.2.2.1.2 Wanton destruction and unjustified devastation under Article 3（b） of the ICTY Statute266

4.2.2.1.3 Destruction or wilful damage to institutions dedicated to religion， charity and education， the arts and sciences， historic monuments and works of art and science under Article 3（d）268

4.2.2.2 Hostage-taking270

4.2.2.3 Inhuman treatment or cruel treatment271

4.2.2.4 Murder or wilful killing273

4.2.2.5 Outrages upon personal dignity275

4.2.2.6 Plunder， pillage， or extensive appropriation278

4.2.2.7 Rape280

4.2.2.8 Slavery or unlawful labour281

4.2.2.9 Terror281

4.2.2.10 Torture284

4.2.2.11 Unlawful attack on civilians and civilian objects285

4.2.2.12 Unlawful confinement287

4.2.2.13 Unlawful deportation or transfer288

4.2.2.14 Violence to life and person288

4.2.2.15 Wilfully causing great suffering or serious injury to body or health290

4.2.2.16 Other underlying offences290

4.3 War crimes in the International Criminal Court and Internationalised Tribunals291

4.3.1 The International Criminal Court291

4.3.1.1 The Rome Statute291

4.3.1.2 The Elements of Crimes297

4.3.2 The Internationalised Tribunals304

4.3.2.1 Special Court for Sierra Leone （SCSL）304

4.3.2.2 East Timor： Special Panels for Serious Crimes （SPSC）310

4.3.2.3 The Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia （ECCC）312

4.3.2.4 Supreme Iraqi Criminal Tribunal （SICT） （also known as the Iraqi High Tribunal （IHT））314

5 Cumulative convictions and sentencing318

5.1 Cumulative and alternative charging319

5.2 Cumulative convictions324

5.2.1 Pre-Celebici jurisprudence324

5.2.2 The February 2001 Celebici appeal judgement326

5.2.3 Application of the Celebici test to different statutory crimes （‘inter-article’ convictions）331

5.2.4 Application of the Celebici test to different underlying offences of the same statutory crime （‘intra-article’ convictions）334

5.2.4.1 Intra-article convictions for crimes against humanity335

5.2.4.2 Intra-article convictions for war crimes348

5.2.4.3 Intra-article convictions for genocide349

5.2.5 Effect of trial chamber error in failing to convict cumulatively when cumulative convictions are available354

5.3 Sentencing356

5.3.1 No coherent sentencing practice359

5.3.2 No hierarchy of crimes363

5.3.3 The Appeals Chamber’s interference in sentence determination by trial chambers367

6 Conclusion370

6.1 The content and context of intern ational crimes371

6.1.1 Definitions of the crimes should not refer only to the accused or the physical perpetrator372

6.1.2 The elements of the crimes and the elements of the forms of responsibility answer separate legal inquiries373

6.1.3 Judgements should specify， in their dispositions， the precise conduct for which the accused has been convicted374

6.2 The relative importance of the crimes in the different courts and tribunals375

6.3 Variations in the definitions of crimes in the different courts and tribunals379

6.4 The need for a more coherent conviction and sentencing practice383

Annex： Elements of core international crimes and sample combinations with forms of responsibility387

1. Common underlying offences390

1.1 Arbitrary deprivation of liberty390

1.2 Destruction of real or personal property390

1.3 Forcible displacement390

1.4 Murder391

1.5 Rape391

1.6 Torture391

2. Crimes against humanity391

2.1 General requirements for crimes against humanity391

2.2 Murder as a crime against humanity392

2.3 Extermination as a crime against humanity392

2.4 Enslavement as a crime against humanity392

2.5 Deportation as a crime against humanity393

2.6 Imprisonment as a crime against humanity393

2.7 Torture as a crime against humanity393

2.8 Rape as a crime against humanity393

2.9 Persecution as a crime against humanity394

2.10 Other inhumane acts as crimes against humanity396

3. Genocide and related crimes397

3.1 General requirements for genocide397

3.2 Genocide by killing397

3.3 Genocide by causing serious bodily harm397

3.4 Genocide by causing serious mental harm398

3.5 Genocide by deliberate infliction of eventually destructive conditions of life398

3.6 Genocide by prevention of births398

3.7 Genocide by forcibly transferring children to another group399

3.8 Conspiracy to commit genocide399

3.9 Direct and public incitement to commit genocide399

3.10 Attempt to commit genocide399

4. War crimes399

4.1 General requirements for all war crimes399

4.2 Additional general requirements for grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions of 1949400

4.3 Additional general requirements for war crimes arising om breaches of Common Article 3 of the Geneva Conventions （‘Common Article 3’） or Additional Protocol Ⅱ to the Geneva Conventions （‘Additional Protocol Ⅱ’）400

4.4 Additional general requirements for violations of the laws or customs of war under Article 3 of the ICTY Statute400

4.5 ‘Extensive destruction of property， not justified by military necessity and carried out unlawfully and wantonly’ as a grave breach401

4.6 ‘Wanton destruction’ of property as a violation of the laws or customs of war401

4.7 ‘Unjustified devastation’ of property as a violation of the laws or customs of war402

4.8 ‘Destruction or wilful damage to institutions dedicated to religion， charity and education， the arts and sciences， historic monuments and works of art and science’ as a violation of the laws or customs of war402

4.9 Hostage-taking as a grave breach403

4.10 Hostage-taking as a violation of the laws or customs of war403

4.11 Inhuman treatment as a grave breach403

4.12 Cruel treatment as a violation of the laws or customs of war404

4.13 Wilful killing as a grave breach404

4.14 Murder as a violation of the laws or customs of war404

4.15 Outrages upon personal dignity as a violation of Additional Protocol Ⅱ / the laws or customs of war405

4.16 ‘Extensive appropriation of property， not justified by military necessity and carried out unlawfully and wantonly’ as a grave breach405

4.17 Plunder as a violation of the laws or customs of war406

4.18 Rape as a grave breach406

4.19 Rape as a violation of the laws or customs of war406

4.20 Slavery as a violation of the laws or customs of war407

4.21 Unlawful labour as a violation of the laws or customs of war407

4.22 Terror as a violation of the laws or customs of war407

4.23 Torture as a grave breach408

4.24 Torture as a violation of the laws or customs of war408

4.25 Unlawful attack on civilians as a violation of the laws or customs of war408

4.26 Unlawful attack on civilian objects as a violation of the laws or customs of war409

4.27 Unlawful confinement of a civilian as a grave breach409

4.28 Unlawful confinement as a violation of the laws or customs of war409

4.29 Unlawful deportation or transfer as a grave breach410

4.30 Wilfully causing great suffering or serious injury to body or health as a grave breach410

5. Sample combinations of elements of crimes and forms of responsibility410

5.1 Torture as a crime against humanity411

5.2 Murder as a form of persecution as a crime against humanity415

5.3 Genocide by killing421

5.4 Extensive destruction of property as a grave breach424

5.5 Plunder as a violation of the laws or customs of war429

Index435