物理中的理论概念 第2版 英文PDF|Epub|txt|kindle电子书版本网盘下载

物理中的理论概念 第2版 英文PDF格式电子书版下载

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1 Introduction1

1.1 An explanation for the reader1

1.2 How this book came about4

1.3 A warning to the reader5

1.4 The nature of physics and theoretical physics6

1.5 The influence of our environment7

1.6 The plan of the book9

1.7 Apologies and words of encouragement10

1.8 References10

Case Study Ⅰ The origins of Newton's laws of motion and of gravity13

Ⅰ.1 Reference14

2 From Ptolemy to Kepler-the Copernican revolution15

2.1 Ancient history15

2.2 The Copernican revolution18

2.3 Tycho Brahe-the lord of Uraniborg21

2.4 Johannes Kepler and heavenly harmonies25

2.5 References32

3 Galileo and the nature of the physical sciences34

3.1 Introduction34

3.2 Galileo as an experimental physicist34

3.3 Galileo's telescopic discoveries40

3.4 The trial of Galileo-the heart of the matter42

3.5 The trial of Galileo47

3.6 Galilean relativity48

3.7 Reflections50

3.8 References52

4 Newton and the law of gravity53

4.1 Introduction53

4.2 Lincolnshire 1642-6153

4.3 Cambridge 1661-554

4.4 Lincolnshire 1665-754

4.5 Cambridge 1667-9660

4.6 Newton the alchemist62

4.7 The interpretation of ancient texts and the scriptures65

4.8 London 1696-172767

4.9 References68

Appendix to Chapter 4:Notes on conic sections and central orbits68

A4.1 Equations for conic sections68

A4.2 Kepler's laws and planetary motion72

A4.3 Rutherford scattering74

Case Study Ⅱ Maxwell's equations77

5 The origin of Maxwell's equations79

5.1 How it all began79

5.2 Michael Faraday-mathematics without mathematics82

5.3 How Maxwell derived the equations for the electromagnetic field88

5.4 Heinrich Hertz and the discovery of electromagnetic waves98

5.5 Reflections100

5.6 References102

Appendix to Chapter 5:Useful notes on vector fields103

A5.1 The divergence theorem and Stokes'theorem103

A5.2 Results related to the divergence theorem103

A5.3 Results related to Stokes'theorem105

A5.4 Vector fields with special properties105

A5.5 Vector operators in various coordinate systems106

A5.6 Vector operators and dispersion relations108

A5.7 How to relate the different expressions for the magnetic fields produced by currents109

6 How to rewrite the history of electromagnetism114

6.1 Introduction114

6.2 Maxwell's equations as a set of vector equations115

6.3 Gauss's theorem in electromagnetism115

6.4 Time-independent fields as conservative fields of force117

6.5 Boundary conditions in electromagnetism117

6.6 Ampère'slaw121

6.7 Faraday's law121

6.8 The story so far122

6.9 Derivation of Coulomb's law123

6.10 Derivation of the Bi？t-Savart law125

6.11 The interpretation of Maxwell's equations in material media126

6.12 The energy densities of electromagnetic fields129

6.13 Concluding remarks133

6.14 References134

Case Study Ⅲ Mechanics and dynamics-linear and non-linear135

Ⅲ.1 References137

7 Approaches to mechanics and dynamics138

7.1 Newton's laws ofmotion138

7.2 Principles of'least action'140

7.3 The Euler-Lagrange equation143

7.4 Small oscillations and normal modes147

7.5 Conservation laws and symmetry152

7.6 Hamilton's equations and Poisson brackets155

7.7 A warning157

7.8 References158

Appendix to Chapter 7:The motion of fluids158

A7.1 The equation of continuity158

A7.2 The equation of motion for an incompressible fluid in the absence of viscosity161

A7.3 The equation of motion for an incompressible fluid including viscous forces162

8 Dimensional analysis,chaos and self-organised criticality165

8.1 Introduction165

8.2 Dimensional analysis165

8.3 Introduction to chaos181

8.4 Scaling laws and self-organised criticality193

8.5 Beyond computation199

8.6 References200

Case Study Ⅳ Thermodynamics and statistical physics203

Ⅳ.1 References205

9 Basic thermodynamics206

9.1 Heat and temperature206

9.2 Heat as motion versus the caloric theory of heat207

9.3 The first law of thermodynamics212

9.4 The origin of the second law of thermodynamics222

9.5 The second law of thermodynamics228

9.6 Entropy238

9.7 The law of increase of entropy240

9.8 The differential form of the combined first and second laws of thermodynamics244

9.9 References244

Appendix to Chapter 9-Maxwell's relations and Jacobians245

A9.1 Perfect differentials in thermodynamics245

A9.2 Maxwell's relations246

A9.3 Jacobians in thermodynamics248

10 Kinetic theory and the origin of statistical mechanics250

10.1 The kinetic theory of gases250

10.2 Kinetic theory of gases-first version251

10.3 Kinetic theory of gases-second version252

10.4 Maxwell's velocity distribution257

10.5 The viscosity of gases263

10.6 The statistical nature of the second law of thermodynamics266

10.7 Entropy and probability268

10.8 Entropy and the density of states272

10.9 Gibbs entropy and information276

10.10 Concluding remarks278

10.11 References278

Case Study Ⅴ The origius of the concept of quanta281

Ⅴ.1 References282

11 Black-body radiation up to 1895283

11.1 The state of physics in 1890283

11.2 Kirchhoff's law of emission and absorption of radiation284

11.3 The Stefan-Boltzmann law289

11.4 Wien's displacement law and the spectrum of black-body radiation297

11.5 References301

12 1895-1900:Planck and the spectrum of black-body radiation303

12.1 Planck's early career303

12.2 Oscillators and their radiation in thermal equilibrium305

12.3 The equilibrium radiation spectrum of a harmonic oscillator311

12.4 Towards the spectrum of black-body radiation315

12.5 The primitive form of Planck's radiation law318

12.6 Rayleigh and the spectrum of black-body radiation320

12.7 Comparison of the laws for black-body radiation with experiment323

12.8 References325

Appendix to Chapter 12:Rayleigh's paper of 1900'Remarks upon the law of complete radiation'326

13 Planck's theory of black-body radiation329

13.1 Introduction329

13.2 Boltzmann's procedure in statistical mechanics329

13.3 Planck's analysis333

13.4 Planck and'natural units'336

13.5 Planck and the physical significance of h338

13.6 Why Planck found the right answer340

13.7 References343

14 Einstein and the quantisation of light345

14.1 1905-Einstein's annus mirabilis345

14.2 'On an heuristic viewpoint concerning the production and transformation of light'348

14.3 The quantum theory of solids354

14.4 Debye's theory of specific heats358

14.5 The specific heats of gases revisited360

14.6 Conclusion363

14.7 References364

15 The triumph of the quantum hypothesis366

15.1 The situation in 1909366

15.2 Fluctuations of particles in a box366

15.3 Fluctuations of randomly superposed waves369

15.4 Fluctuations in black-body radiation371

15.5 The first Solvay conference373

15.6 Bohr's theory of the hydrogen atom375

15.7 Einstein(1916)'On the quantum theory ofradiation'383

15.8 The story concluded388

15.9 References390

Appendix to Chapter 15:The detection of signals in the presence of noise391

A15.1 Nyquist's theorem and Johnson noise391

A15.2 The detection of photons in the presence of background noise393

A15.3 The detection of electromagnetic waves in the presence of noise394

Case Study Ⅵ Special relativity397

Ⅵ.1 Reference399

16 Special relativity-a study in invariance400

16.1 Introduction400

16.2 Geometry and the Lorentz transformation407

16.3 Three-vectors and four-vectors410

16.4 Relativistic dynamics-the momentum and force four-vectors416

16.5 The relativistic equations describing motion419

16.6 The frequency four-vector422

16.7 Lorentz contraction and the origin of magnetic fields423

16.8 Reflections425

16.9 References426

Case Study Ⅶ General relativity and cosmology429

17 An introduction to general relativity431

17.1 Introduction431

17.2 Essential features of the relativistic theory of gravity434

17.3 Isotropic curved spaces444

17.4 The route to general relativity448

17.5 The Schwarzschild metric452

17.6 Particle orbits about a point mass454

17.7 Advance of perihelia of planetary orbits461

17.8 Light rays in Schwarzschild space-time464

17.9 Particles and light rays near black holes466

17.10 Circular orbits about Schwarzschild black holes468

17.11 Refefences471

Appendix to Chapter 17:Isotropic curved spaces472

A17.1 A brief history of non-Euclidean geometries472

A17.2 Parallel transport and isotropic curved spaces473

18 The technology of cosmology478

18.1 Introduction478

18.2 Joseph Fraunhofer478

18.3 The invention of photography479

18.4 The new generation of telescopes481

18.5 The funding of astronomy487

18.6 The electronic revolution491

18.7 The impact of the Second World War493

18.8 Ultraviolet,X-ray and y-rayastronomy495

18.9 Reflections497

18.10 References498

19 Cosmology499

19.1 Cosmology and physics499

19.2 Basic cosmological data500

19.3 The Robertson-Walker metric505

19.4 Observations in cosmology509

19.5 Historical interlude-steady state theory515

19.6 The standard world models517

19.7 The thermal history of the Universe528

19.8 Nucleosynthesis in the early Universe536

19.9 The best-buy cosmological model540

19.10 References543

Appendix to Chapter 19:The Robertson-Walker metric for an empty universe543

20 Epilogue547

Index548