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1 INTRODUCTION TO MICROELECTRONICS1

1.1 Electronics versus Microelectronics1

1.2 Examples of Electronic Systems2

1.2.1 Cellular Telephone2

1.2.2 Digital Camera5

1.2.3 Analog Versus Digital7

1.3 Basic Concepts8

1.3.1 Analog and Digital Signals8

1.3.2 Analog Circuits10

1.3.3 Digital Circuits11

1.3.4 Basic Circuit Theorems13

1.4 Chapter Summary20

2 BASIC PHYSICS OF SEMICONDUCTORS21

2.1 Semiconductor Materials and Their Properties22

2.1.1 Charge Carriers in Solids22

2.1.2 Modification of Carrier Densities25

2.1.3 Transport of Carriers28

2.2 pn Junction36

2.2.1 pn Junction in Equilibrium37

2.2.2 pn Junction Under Reverse Bias42

2.2.3 pn Junction Under Forward Bias46

2.2.4 I/V Characteristics49

2.3 Reverse Breakdown54

2.3.1 Zener Breakdown54

2.3.2 Avalanche Breakdown55

2.4 Chapter Summary55

Problems56

SPICE Problems60

3 DIODE MODELS AND CIRCUITS62

3.1 Ideal Diode62

3.1.1 Initial Thoughts62

3.1.2 Ideal Diode64

3.1.3 Application Examples68

3.2 pn Junction as a Diode73

3.3 Additional Examples75

3.4 Large-Signal and Small-Signal Operation80

3.5 Applications of Diodes89

3.5.1 Half-Wave and Full-Wave Rectifiers89

3.5.2 Voltage Regulation102

3.5.3 Limiting Circuits104

3.5.4 Voltage Doublers108

3.5.5 Diodes as Level Shifters and Switches112

3.6 Chapter Summary115

Problems116

SPICE Problems126

4 PHYSICS OF BIPOLAR TRANSISTORS128

4.1 General Considerations128

4.2 Structure of Bipolar Transistor130

4.3 Operation of Bipolar Transistor in Active Mode131

4.3.1 Collector Current134

4.3.2 Base and Emitter Currents137

4.4 Bipolar Transistor Models and Characteristics139

4.4.1 Large-Signal Model139

4.4.2 I/V Characteristics141

4.4.3 Concept of Transconductance143

4.4.4 Small-Signal Model145

4.4.5 Early Effect150

4.5 Operation of Bipolar Transistor in Saturation Mode156

4.6 The PNP Transistor159

4.6.1 Structure and Operation160

4.6.2 Large-Signal Model160

4.6.3 Small-Signal Model163

4.7 Chapter Summary167

Problems167

SPICE Problems178

5 BIPOLAR AMPLIFIERS181

5.1 General Considerations181

5.1.1 Input and Output Impedances182

5.1.2 Biasing186

5.1.3 DC and Small-Signal Analysis186

5.2 Operating Point Analysis and Design188

5.2.1 Simple Biasing189

5.2.2 Resistive Divider Biasing192

5.2.3 Biasing with Emitter Degeneration195

5.2.4 Self-Biased Stage199

5.2.5 Biasing of PNP Transistors202

5.3 Bipolar Amplifier Topologies206

5.3.1 Common-Emitter Topology207

5.3.2 Common-Base Topology233

5.3.3 Emitter Follower250

5.4 Summary and Additional Examples258

5.5 Chapter Summary264

Problems264

SPICE Problems285

6 PHYSICS F MOS TRANSISTORS288

6.1 Structure of MOSFET288

6.2 Operation of MOSFET291

6.2.1 Qualitative Analysis291

6.2.2 Derivation of I/V Characteristics297

6.2.3 Channel-Length Modulation306

6.2.4 MOS Transconductance308

6.2.5 Velocity Saturation310

6.2.6 Other Second-Order Effects310

6.3 MOS Device Models311

6.3.1 Large-Signal Model311

6.3.2 Small-Signal Model313

6.4 PMOS Transistor314

6.5 CMOS Technology316

6.6 Comparison of Bipolar and MOS Devices317

6.7 Chapter Summary317

Problems318

SPICE Problems327

7 CMOS AMPLIFIERS329

7.1 General Considerations329

7.1.1 MOS Amplifier Topologies329

7.1.2 Biasing329

7.1.3 Realization of Current Sources333

7.2 Common-Source Stage334

7.2.1 CS Core334

7.2.2 CS Stage With Current-Source Load337

7.2.3 CS Stage With Diode-Connected Load338

7.2.4 CS Stage With Degeneration340

7.2.5 CS Core With Biasing343

7.3 Common-Gate Stage345

7.3.1 CG Stage With Biasing350

7.4 Source Follower351

7.4.1 Source Follower Core352

7.4.2 Source Follower With Biasing354

7.5 Summary and Additional Examples356

7.6 Chapter Summary360

Problems360

SPICE Problems378

8 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER AS A BLACK BOX380

8.1 General Considerations381

8.2 Op-Amp-Based Circuits383

8.2.1 Noninverting Amplifier383

8.2.2 Inverting Amplifier385

8.2.3 Integrator and Differentiator388

8.2.4 Voltage Adder395

8.3 Nonlinear Functions396

8.3.1 Precision Rectifier396

8.3.2 Logarithmic Amplifier397

8.3.3 Square-Root Amplifier398

8.4 Op Amp Nonidealities399

8.4.1 DC Offsets399

8.4.2 Input Bias Current402

8.4.3 Speed Limitations405

8.4.4 Finite Input and Output Impedances410

8.5 Design Examples411

8.6 Chapter Summary413

Problems414

SPICE Problems423

9 CASCODE STAGES AND CURRENT MIRRORS425

9.1 Cascode Stage425

9.1.1 Cascode as a Current Source425

9.1.2 Cascode as an Amplifier432

9.2 Current Mirrors441

9.2.1 Initial Thoughts441

9.2.2 Bipolar Current Mirror442

9.2.3 MOS Current Mirror451

9.3 Chapter Summary454

Problems455

SPICE Problems470

10 DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS473

10.1 General Considerations473

10.1.1 Initial Thoughts473

10.1.2 Differential Signals475

10.1.3 Differential Pair478

10.2 Bipolar Differential Pair479

10.2.1 Qualitative Analysis479

10.2.2 Large-Signal Analysis484

10.2.3 Small-Signal Analysis488

10.3 MOS Differential Pair494

10.3.1 Qualitative Analysis495

10.3.2 Large-Signal Analysis499

10.3.3 Small-Signal Analysis503

10.4 Cascode Differential Amplifiers507

10.5 Common-Mode Rejection511

10.6 Differential Pair with Active Load515

10.6.1 Qualitative Analysis516

10.6.2 Quantitative Analysis518

10.7 Chapter Summary523

Problems524

SPICE Problems541

11 FREQUENCY RESPONSE544

11.1 Fundamental Concepts544

11.1.1 General Considerations544

11.1.2 Relationship Between Transfer Function and Frequency Response547

11.1.3 Bode’s Rules550

11.1.4 Association of Poles with Nodes551

11.1.5 Miller’s Theorem553

11.1.6 General Frequency Response556

11.2 High-Frequency Models of Transistors559

11.2.1 High-Frequency Model of Bipolar Transistor559

11.2.2 High-Frequency Model of MOSFET561

11.2.3 Transit Frequency563

11.3 Analysis Procedure564

11.4 Frequency Response of CE and CS Stages565

11.4.1 Low-Frequency Response565

11.4.2 High-Frequency Response566

11.4.3 Use of Miller’s Theorem566

11.4.4 Direct Analysis569

11.4.5 Input Impedance572

11.5 Frequency Response of CB and CG Stages573

11.5.1 Low-Frequency Response573

11.5.2 High-Frequency Response574

11.6 Frequency Response of Followers576

11.6.1 Input and Output Impedances580

11.7 Frequency Response of Cascode Stage583

11.7.1 Input and Output Impedances587

11.8 Frequency Response of Differential Pairs588

11.8.1 Common-Mode Frequency Response590

11.9 Additional Examples591

11.10 Chapter Summary595

Problems596

SPICE Problems607

12 FEEDBACK610

12.1 General Considerations610

12.1.1 Loop Gain613

12.2 Properties of Negative Feedback614

12.2.1 Gain Desensitization614

12.2.2 Bandwidth Extension616

12.2.3 Modification of I/O Impedances618

12.2.4 Linearity Improvement622

12.3 Types of Amplifiers622

12.3.1 Simple Amplifier Models623

12.3.2 Examples of Amplifier Types624

12.4 Sense and Return Techniques626

12.5 Polarity of Feedback629

12.6 Feedback Topologies631

12.6.1 Voltage-Voltage Feedback631

12.6.2 Voltage-Current Feedback636

12.6.3 Current-Voltage Feedback639

12.6.4 Current-Current Feedback644

12.7 Effect of Nonideal I/O Impedances647

12.7.1 Inclusion of I/O Effects648

12.8 Stability in Feedback Systems660

12.8.1 Review of Bode’s Rules660

12.8.2 Problem of Instability662

12.8.3 Stability Condition665

12.8.4 Phase Margin668

12.8.5 Frequency Compensation670

12.8.6 Miller Compensation673

12.9 Chapter Summary674

Problems675

SPICE Problems691

13 OUTPUT STAGES AND POWER AMPLIFIERS694

13.1 General Considerations694

13.2 Emitter Follower as Power Amplifier695

13.3 Push-Pull Stage698

13.4 Improved Push-Pull Stage701

13.4.1 Reduction of Crossover Distortion701

13.4.2 Addition of CE Stage705

13.5 Large-Signal Considerations708

13.5.1 Biasing Issues708

13.5.2 Omission of PNP Power Transistor709

13.5.3 High-Fidelity Design712

13.6 Short-Circuit Protection713

13.7 Heat Dissipation713

13.7.1 Emitter Follower Power Rating714

13.7.2 Push-Pull Stage Power Rating715

13.7.3 Thermal Runaway716

13.8 Efficiency718

13.8.1 Efficiency of Emitter Follower718

13.8.2 Efficiency of Push-Pull Stage719

13.9 Power Amplifier Classes720

13.10 Chapter Summary721

Problems722

SPICE Problems728

14 ANALOG FILTERS731

14.1 General Considerations731

14.1.1 Filter Characteristics732

14.1.2 Classification of Filters733

14.1.3 Filter Transfer Function737

14.1.4 Problem of Sensitivity740

14.2 First-Order Filters741

14.3 Second-Order Filters744

14.3.1 Special Cases744

14.3.2 RLC Realizations748

14.4 Active Filters753

14.4.1 Sallen and Key Filter753

14.4.2 Integrator-Based Biquads758

14.4.3 Biquads Using Simulated Inductors762

14.5 Approximation of Filter Response768

14.5.1 Butterworth Response768

14.5.2 Chebyshev Response772

14.6 Chapter Summary777

Problems778

SPICE Problems784

15 DIGITAL CMOS CIRCUITS786

15.1 General Considerations786

15.1.1 Static Characterization of Gates787

15.1.2 Dynamic Characterization of Gates794

15.1.3 Power-Speed Trade-Off797

15.2 CMOS Inverter799

15.2.1 Initial Thoughts799

15.2.2 Voltage Transfer Characteristic801

15.2.3 Dynamic Characteristics807

15.2.4 Power Dissipation812

15.3 CMOS NOR and NAND Gates816

15.3.1 NOR Gate816

15.3.2 NAND Gate819

15.4 Chapter Summary820

Problems821

SPICE Problems827

16 CMOS AMPLIFIERS829

16.1 General Considerations829

16.1.1 Input and Output Impedances830

16.1.2 Biasing834

16.1.3 DC and Small-Signal Analysis835

16.2 Operating Point Analysis and Design836

16.2.1 Simple Biasing838

16.2.2 Biasing with Source Degeneration840

16.2.3 Self-Biased Stage843

16.2.4 Biasing of PMOS Transistors844

16.2.5 Realization of Current Sources845

16.3 CMOS Amplifier Topologies846

16.4 Common-Source Topology847

16.4.1 CS Stage with Current-Source Load852

16.4.2 CS Stage with Diode-Connected Load853

16.4.3 CS Stage with Source Degeneration854

16.4.4 Common-Gate Topology866

16.4.5 Source Follower877

16.5 Additional Examples883

16.6 Chapter Summary887

Problems888

SPICE Problems906

Appendix A INTRODUCTION TO SPICE909

Index928