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Chapter 1 Chemistry: The Study of Change2

1.1 Chemistry: A Science for the Twenty-First Century4

1.2 The Study of Chemistry7

1.3 The Scientific Method8

Chemistry in ActionPrimordial Helium and the Big Bang Theory10

1.4 Classifications of Matter11

1.5 The Three States of Matter13

1.6 Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter14

1.7 Measurement15

Chemistry in ActionThe Importance of Units21

1.8 Handling Numbers20

1.9 Dimensional Analysis in Solving Problems27

Key Equations31

Summary of Facts and Concepts31

Key Words31

Questions and Problems32

Chemical MysteryThe Disappearance of the Dinosaurs38

Chapter 2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions40

2.1 The Atomic Theory42

2.2 The Structure of the Atom43

2.3 Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes49

2.4 The Periodic Table51

Chemistry in ActionDistribution of Elements on Earth and in Living Systems53

2.5 Molecules and Ions52

2.6 Chemical Formulas55

2.7 Naming Compounds59

Summary of Facts and Concepts68

Key Words68

Questions and Problems69

Chapter 3 Mass Relationships in Chemical Reactions74

3.1 Atomic Mass76

3.2 Avogadro's Number and Molar Mass of an Element77

3.3 Molecular Mass81

3.4 The Mass Spectrometer84

3.5 Percent Composition of Compounds84

3.6 Experimental Determination of Empirical Formulas88

3.7 Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations90

3.8 Amounts of Reactants and Products95

3.9 Limiting Reagents99

3.10 Reaction Yield101

Chemistry in ActionChemical Fertilizers102

Key Equations104

Summary of Facts and Concepts104

Key Words105

Questions and Problems105

Chapter 4 Reactions in Aqueous Solutions114

4.1 General Properties of Aqueous Solutions116

4.2 Precipitation Reactions118

Chemistry in ActionAn Undesirable Precipitation Reaction122

4.3 Acid-Base Reactions121

4.4 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions126

Chemistry in ActionBreath Analyzer138

4.5 Concentration of Solutions139

4.6 Gravimetric Analysis143

4.7 Acid-Base Titrations145

4.8 Redox Titrations148

Chemistry in ActionMetal from the Sea150

Key Equations150

Summary of Facts and Concepts150

Key Words151

Questions and Problems151

Chemical MysteryWho Killed Napoleon?160

Chapter 5 Gases162

5.1 Substances That Exist as Gases164

5.2 Pressure of a Gas165

5.3 The Gas Laws169

5.4 The Ideal Gas Equation175

5.5 Gas Stoichiometry184

5.6 Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures186

Chemistry in ActionScuba Diving and the Gas Laws192

5.7 The Kinetic Molecular Theoryof Gases191

Chemistry in ActionSuper Cold Atoms198

5.8 Deviation from Ideal Behavior199

Key Equations202

Summaryof Facts and Concepts202

Key Words203

Questions and Problems203

Chemical MysteryOut of Oxygen212

Chapter 6 Thermochemistry214

6.1 The Nature of Energy and Types of Energy216

6.2 Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions217

6.3 Introduction to Thermodynamics219

Chemistry in ActionMaking Snow and Inflating a Bicycle Tire224

6.4 Enthalpy of Chemical Reactions225

6.5 Calorimetry230

Chemistry in ActionFuel Values of Foods and Other Substances236

6.6 Standard Enthalpy of Formation and Reaction237

Chemistry in ActionHow a Bombardier Beetle Defends Itself242

6.7 Heat of Solution and Dilution243

Key Equations245

Summaryof Facts and Concepts246

Key Words246

Questions and Problems247

Chemical MysteryThe Exploding Tire256

Chapter 7 Quantum Theory and theElectronic Structure of Atoms258

7.1 From Classical Physics to Quantum Theory260

7.2 The Photoelectric Effect264

7.3 Bohr's Theory of the Hydrogen Atom266

Chemistry in ActionElement from the Sun272

Chemistry in ActionLaser—The Splendid Light274

7.4 The Dual Nature of the Electron271

Chemistry in ActionElectron Microscopy276

7.5 Quantum Mechanics277

7.6 Quantum Numbers279

7.7 Atomic Orbitals281

7.8 Electron Configuration285

7.9 The Building-Up Principle292

Key Equations295

Summary of Facts and Concepts296

Key Words297

Questions and Problems297

Chapter 8 Periodic RelationshipsAmong the Elements304

8.1 Development of the Periodic Table306

8.2 Periodic Classification of the Elements308

8.3 Periodic Variation in Physical Properties312

Chemistry in ActionThe Third Liquid Element?319

8.4 Ionization Energy319

8.5 Electron Affinity323

8.6 Variation in Chemical Properties of the Representative Elements325

Chemistry in ActionDiscoveryof the Noble Gases336

Summary of Facts and Concepts337

Key Words337

Questions and Problems338

Chapter 9 Chemical Bonding Ⅰ: Basic Concepts344

9.1 Lewis Dot Symbols346

9.2 The Ionic Bond347

9.3 Lattice Energy of Ionic Compounds349

Chemistry in ActionSodium Chloride—A Common and Important Ionic Compound353

9.4 The Covalent Bond354

9.5 Electronegativity357

9.6 Writing Lewis Structures360

9.7 Formal Charge and Lewis Structure362

9.8 The Concept of Resonance365

9.9 Exceptions to the Octet Rule367

Chemistry in ActionJust Say NO372

9.10 Bond Energy372

Key Equation377

Summary of Facts and Concepts377

Key Words378

Questions and Problems378

Chapter 10 Chemical Bonding Ⅱ: Molecular Geometryand Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals384

10.1 Molecular Geometry386

10.2 Dipole Moment395

Chemistry in ActionMicrowave Ovens—Dipole Moments at Work398

10.3 Valance Bond Theory401

10.4 Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals403

10.5 Hybridization in Molecules Containing Double and Triple Bonds412

10.6 Molecular Orbital Theory415

10.7 Molecular Orbital Configurations418

10.8 Delocalized Molecular Orbitals423

Chemistry in ActionBuckyball, Anyone?426

Key Equations425

Summary of Facts and Concepts425

Key Words428

Questions and Problems428

Chapter 11 Intermolecular Forces and Liquids and Solids434

11.1 The Kinetic Molecular Theoryof Liquids and Solids436

11.2 Intermolecular Forces437

11.3 Properties of Liquids443

Chemistry in ActionWhy Do Lakes Freeze from the Top Down?447

11.4 Crystal Structure446

11.5 X-Ray Diffraction by Crystals453

11.6 Types of Crystals455

11.7 Amorphous Solids460

Chemistry in ActionHigh-Temperature Superconductors460

11.8 Phase Changes462

11.9 Phase Diagrams471

Chemistry in ActionHard-Soiling an Egg on a Mountaintop, Pressure Cookers,and Ice Skating473

Chemistry in ActionLiquid Crystals474

Key Equations476

Summary of Facts and Concepts476

Key Words477

Questions and Problems477

Chapter 12 Physical Properties of Solutions486

12.1 Types of Solutions488

12.2 A Molecular View of the Solution Process489

12.3 Concentration Units491

12.4 The Effect of Temperature on Solubility495

12.5 The Effect of Pressure on the Solubility of Gases497

Chemistry in ActionThe Killer Lake500

12.6 Colligative Properties of Nonelectrolyte Solutions499

12.7 Colligative Properties of Electrolyte Solutions512

Chemistryin ActionDesalination516

12.8 Colloids514

Key Equations518

Summary of Facts and Concepts519

Key Words519

Questions and Problems520

Chemical MysteryThe Wrong Knife528

Chapter 13 Chemical Kinetics530

13.1 The Rate of a Reaction532

13.2 The Rate Law539

13.3 Relation Between Reactant Concentration and Time543

Chemistry in ActionDetermining the Age of the Shroud of Turin552

13.4 Activation Energy and Temperature Dependence ofRate Constants554

13.5 Reaction Mechanisms560

Chemistry in ActionFemtochemistry565

13.6 Catalysis566

Key Equations573

Sumrnary of Facts and Concepts574

Key Words574

Questions and Problems575

Chapter 14 Chemical Equilibrium584

14.1 The Concept of Equilibrium and the Equilibrium Constant586

14.2 Writing Equilibrium Constant Expressions588

14.3 The Relationship Between Chemical Kinetics and ChemicalEquilibrium600

14.4 What Does the Equilibrium Constant Tell Us?601

14.5 Factors That Affect Chemical Equilibrium607

Chemistry in ActionLife at High Altitudes and Hemoglobin Production613

Chemistry in ActionThe Haber Process614

Key Equations616

Summary of Facts and Concepts616

Key Words617

Questions and Problems617

Chapter 15 Acids and Bases626

15.1 Bronsted Acids and Bases628

15.2 The Acid-Base Properties of Water629

15.3 pH—AMeasure of Acidity631

15.4 Strength of Acids and Bases634

15.5 Weak Acids and Acid Ionization Constants638

15.6 Weak Bases and Base Ionization Constants645

15.7 The Relationship Between the Ionization Constants of Acidsand Their Conjugate Bases647

15.8 Diprotic and Polyprotic Acids648

15.9 Molecular Structure and the Strength of Acids652

15.10 Acid-Base Properties of Salts656

15.11 Acid-Base Properties of Oxides and Hydroxides661

15.12 Lewis Acids and Bases664

Chemistry in ActionAntacids and the pH Balance in Your Stomach666

Key Equations668

Summary of Facts and Concepts668

Key Words669

Questions and Problems669

Chemical MysteryDecaying Papers676

Chapter 16 Acid-Base Equilibria andSolubility Equilibria678

16.1 Homogeneous versus Heterogeneous Solution Equilibria680

16.2 The Common Ion Effect680

16.3 Buffer Solutions683

Chemistry in ActionMaintaining the pH of Blood688

16.4 Acid-Base Titrations690

16.5 Acid-Base Indicators698

16.6 Solubility Equilibria700

16.7 Separation of Ions by Fractional Precipitation707

16.8 The Common Ion Effect and Solubility709

16.9 pH and Solubility710

16.10 Complex Ion Equilibria and Solubility713

16.11 Application of the Solubility Product Principle toQualitative Analysis718

Chemistry in ActionHow an Eggshell Is Formed719

Key Equation721

Summary of Facts and Concepts721

Key Words722

Questions and Problems722

Chemical MysteryA Hard-Boiled Snack728

Chapter 17 Chemistry in the Atmosphere730

17.1 Earth's Atmosphere732

17.2 Phenomena in the Outer Layers of the Atmosphere735

17.3 Depletion of Ozone in the Stratosphere737

17.4 Volcanoes742

17.5 The Greenhouse Effect743

17.6 Acid Rain748

17.7 Photochemical Smog751

17.8 Indoor Pollution753

Summary of Facts and Concepts756

Key Words757

Questions and Problems757

Chapter 18 Entropy, Free Energy, and Equilibrium762

18.1 The Three Laws of Thermodynamics764

18.2 Spontaneous Processes and Entropy764

18.3 Entropy765

18.4 The Second Law of Thermodynamics770

Chemistry in ActionThe Efficiency of Heat Engines776

18.5 Gibbs Free Energy775

18.6 Free Energy and Chemical Equilibrium782

18.7 Thermodynamics in Living Systems786

Chemistry in ActionThe Thermodynamics of a Rubber Band787

Key Equations789

Summary of Facts and Concepts789

Key Words789

Questions and Problems790

Chapter 19 Electrochemistry796

19.1 Redox Reactions798

19.2 Galvanic Cells801

19.3 Standard Reduction Potentials803

19.4 Spontaneity of Redox Reactions809

19.5 The Effect of Concentration of Cell Emf812

19.6 Batteries816

19.7 Corrosion821

19.8 Electrolysis825

Chemistry in ActionDental Filling Discomfort831

Key Equations830

Summary of Facts and Concepts831

Key Words832

Questions and Problems832

Chemical MysteryTainted Water840

Chapter 20 Metallurgy and the Chemistry of Metals842

20.1 Occurrence of Metals844

20.2 Metallurgical Processes844

20.3 Band Theory of Conductivity852

20.4 Periodic Trends in Metallic Properties854

20.5 The Alkali Metals855

20.6 The Alkaline Earth Metals859

20.7 Aluminum861

Chemistry in ActionRecycling Aluminum864

Summary of Facts and Concepts864

Key Words866

Questions and Problems866

Chapter 21 Nonmetallic Elements and Their Compounds870

21.1 General Properties of Nonmetals872

21.2 Hydrogen872

Chemistry in ActionMetallic Hydrogen878

21.3 Carbon877

Chemistry in ActionSynthetic Gas from Coal881

21.4 Nitrogen and Phosphorus880

Chemistry in ActionAmmonium Nitrate—The Explosive Feilizer889

21.5 Oxygen and Sulfur888

21.6 The Halogens896

Summary of Facts and Concepts904

Key Words905

Questions and Problems905

Chapter 22 Transition Metal Chemistry andCoordination Compounds910

22.1 Properties of the Transition Metals912

22.2 Chemistry of Iron and Copper915

22.3 Coordination Compounds917

22.4 Structure of Coordination Compounds921

22.5 Bonding in Coordination Compounds: Crystal Field Theory925

22.6 Reactions of Coordination Compounds934

Chemistry in ActionCoordination Compounds in Living Systems930

22.7 Applications of Coordination Compounds934

Chemistry in ActionCisplatin—The Anticancer Drug932

Key Equation936

Summary of Facts and Concepts936

Key Words936

Questions and Problems936

Chemical MysteryDating Paintings with Prussian Blue940

Chapter 23 Nuclear Chemistry942

23.1 The Nature of Nuclear Reactions944

23.2 Nuclear Stability946

23.3 Natural Radioactiviry951

23.4 Nuclear Transmutation954

23.5 Nuclear Fission957

Chemistry in ActionNature's Own Fission Reactor962

23.6 Nuclear Fusion963

23.7 Uses of Isotopes965

23.8 Biological Effects of Radiation967

Chemistryin ActionFood Irradiation969

Key Equation970

Summary of Facts and Concepts970

Key Words971

Questions and Problems971

Chemical MysteryThe ArtForgery of the Twentieth Century976

Chapter 24 Organic Chemistry978

24.1 Classes of Organic Compounds980

24.2 Aliphatic Hydrocarbons980

Chemistry in ActionIce That Burns992

24.3 Aromatic Hydrocarbons993

24.4 Chemist of the Functional Groups996

Chemistry in ActionThe Petroleum Indust1003

Summary of Facts and Concepts1004

Key Words1005

Questions and Problems1006

Chemical MysteryThe Disappearing Fingerprints1012

Chapter 25 Synthetic and Natural Organic Polymers1014

25.1 Properties of Polymers1016

25.2 Synthetic Organic Polymers1016

25.3 Proteins1021

25.4 Nucleic Acids1030

Chemisty in Action Sicke Cell Anemia-A Molecular Disease1030

Chemisty in ActionDNAFingerprinting1034

Summary Facts and Concepts1035

Key Words1035

Questions and Problems1035

Chemical Mystery Astory That Curl Your Hair1038