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Introduction1

1 The Emerging System of International Criminal Justice10

Ⅰ. Introduction10

Ⅱ. Prosecution of International Crimes before Domestic Courts11

A. National Jurisdiction for International Crimes11

B. Is There an Obligation to Exercise Domestic Criminal Jurisdiction for International Crimes?13

C. Challenges of Domestic Prosecution18

D. Prosecution before National Courts of Third States on the Basis of Universal Jurisdiction19

Ⅲ. Trials of International Crimes before International Courts28

A. The Post-War Period: The Nuremberg and Tokyo Tribunals and the Work of the International Law Commission28

B. The Ad Hoc International Criminal Tribunals31

ⅰ. Establishing the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia31

ⅱ. Establishing the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda33

ⅲ. The Development of the Completion Strategy34

ⅳ. Relationship between the Ad Hoc Tribunals and National Jurisdictions36

ⅴ. Conclusion: The Ad Hoc Tribunals and Their Contribution to International Criminal Justice44

C. The International Criminal Court45

ⅰ. Establishment45

ⅱ. Jurisdiction46

ⅲ. 'Complementary' Justice: The System of International Criminal Justice as Contemplated by the Rome Statute50

ⅳ. Conclusion55

Ⅳ. Conclusion55

2 Hybrid and Internationalised Tribunals: A Study of Existing Practice58

Ⅰ. Introduction58

Ⅱ. Special Court for Sierra Leone65

A. Background to the Conflict in Sierra Leone65

B. The Establishment of the SCSL68

C. Key Features and Jurisdiction70

Ⅲ. Special Tribunal for Lebanon73

A. The Assassination of Rafik Hariri and the Establishment of the UNIIIC73

B. Further Attacks and the Establishment of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon75

C. Key Features and Jurisdiction77

Ⅳ. Kosovo and the International Judges and Prosecutors Programme79

A. The Conflict in Kosovo79

B. Accountability for Violations of International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights Law82

C. Key Features and Jurisdiction84

D. The Situation Following the Declaration of Independence and the Transfer to EULEX87

Ⅴ. UNTAET and the Serious Crimes Process90

A. The Indonesian Occupation of East Timor, the Consultation on Independence and International Administration90

B. The Quest for Accountability for Violations in East Timor93

C. Key Features and Jurisdiction95

D. Further Accountability Initiatives and the Re-activation of the SPSC Process98

Ⅵ. War Crimes Chamber for Bosnia-Herzegovina101

A. The Conflict in Bosnia and Herzegovina101

B. Accountability for Human Rights Violations104

C. Key Features and Jurisdiction106

Ⅶ. Iraqi High Tribunal109

A. Saddam Hussein's Reign in Iraq109

B. Occupation of Iraq: May 2003-June 2004110

C. Establishing the Iraqi High Tribunal113

D. Key Features and Jurisdiction117

Ⅷ. Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia120

A. Regime of the Khmer Rouge120

B. Accountability for Violations and the Negotiations for the ECCC121

C. Key Features and Jurisdiction128

Ⅸ. Conclusion133

3 Exclusions and Proposals for Future Hybrid and Internationalised Tribunals134

Ⅰ. Introduction134

Ⅱ. Institutions with International Elements Not Considered to be Hybrid or Internationalised Tribunals135

A. The Nuremberg and Tokyo Tribunals135

B. Serbian War Crimes Chamber139

C. The Lockerbie Court140

D. Other Institutions144

E. Conclusion148

Ⅲ. Proposed Hybrid and Internationalised Tribunals149

A. Special Tribunal for Burundi149

B. The Special Court for Darfur, Sudan152

ⅰ. The Discussion Surrounding the Referral to the International Criminal Court153

ⅱ. The ICC and the Arrest Warrant for President Bashir155

C. Specialised Chamber in the Democratic Republic of the Congo157

D. An Extraterritorial Piracy Tribunal161

E. Special Tribunal for Kenya172

F. The Extraordinary Criminal Court for Liberia178

G. Special Tribunal for the Trial of Hissene Habre182

Ⅳ. Conclusion185

4 Hybrid and Internationalised Tribunals: In Search of a Definition187

Ⅰ. Introduction187

Ⅱ. What is Driving the Demand for Hybrid and Internationalised Tribunals?189

A. Circumstances Leading to Establishment191

B. Existence of an International Criminal Tribunal with Jurisdiction196

C. The Applicable Legal Framework200

D. Conclusion201

Ⅲ. Is There a Definition of a Hybrid and Internationalised Tribunal?201

A. Criminal Judicial Function202

B. Duration of the Tribunal202

C. Participation of International Personnel204

D. Location of the Tribunal206

E. Involvement of the International Community, in particular the United Nations206

F. Funding Mechanism210

G. Legal Basis, Legal Capacity and Powers212

H. Jurisdiction: An Introduction214

I. Temporal Jurisdiction215

J. Territorial Jurisdiction218

K. Personal Jurisdiction219

L. Material Jurisdiction227

ⅰ. Factors for the Inclusion of International Crimes227

ⅱ. Must Hybrid and Internationalised Tribunals Exercise Jurisdiction in Respect of International Crimes?232

ⅲ. Factors for the Inclusion of Ordinary Crimes243

ⅳ. Is There a Requirement for the Jurisdiction of Hybrid and Internationalised Tribunals to Include Ordinary Crimes under Domestic Law?246

ⅴ. Conclusions248

M. Relationship with Other Institutions248

N. Conclusion: Is there a Definition?249

5 Legal and Jurisdictional Bases of Hybrid and Internationalised Tribunals253

Ⅰ. Introduction253

Ⅱ. Tribunals Established by the Security Council254

A. The Power of the Security Council to Establish an Ad Hoc Tribunal254

B. Can the Security Council Establish a Hybrid or Internationalised Criminal Tribunal?259

C. The Ambiguous Legal Basis of the STL260

D. The STL as a 'Treaty-Based' Tribunal262

E. Resolution 1757 as the Legal Basis for the STL267

F. Which Option Did the Council Intend?268

G. Conclusion269

Ⅲ. Tribunals Established by Treaty271

A. General271

B. Legal Challenges to the Establishment of the SCSL273

ⅰ. The SCSL as a 'Chapter VII' Court274

ⅱ. Unlawful Delegation of Powers278

ⅲ. Arguments Based on a Violation of the Constitution of Sierra Leone279

ⅳ. National Institution Arguments281

C. Conclusion282

Ⅳ. Tribunals Established Under National Law, With International Elements282

A. Tribunals Established Under International Administration or During Military Occupation282

ⅰ. United Nations Administration of Territory: The Legal Basis of the IJPP and the SPSC282

ⅱ. International Civilian Administration: The War Crimes Chamber for Bosnia and Herzegovina288

ⅲ. Courts Established During Military Occupation: The Iraqi High Tribunal289

B. Tribunals Established Under National Law, Operating with International Assistance: The ECCC293

C. Conclusion299

Ⅴ. Conclusions: Legal Bases of Hybrid and Internationalised Tribunals300

Ⅵ. The Nature of Jurisdiction Conferred on Hybrid and Internationalised Tribunals300

A. Introduction300

B. Territorial Jurisdiction301

C. Delegation of Jurisdiction from the (Normally) Territorial State303

ⅰ. Lawfulness of a Delegation of Jurisdiction305

ⅱ. Do the Differences Between the ICC and the SCSL Preclude a Delegation of Jurisdiction to the SCSL?308

ⅲ. Delegation of Universal Jurisdiction: Specific Concerns311

ⅳ. Conclusion314

D. Universal Jurisdiction Arising from the Nature of the Crimes314

E. Jurisdiction Based on the Powers of the Security Council Under Chapter VII316

Ⅶ. Conclusion318

6 Legal Barriers to the Exercise of Jurisdiction321

Ⅰ. Introduction321

Ⅱ. The Principle of Legality322

Ⅲ. Immunity326

A. Introduction326

B. Nature of Immunity in International Law326

C. The Internationalised Tribunals330

ⅰ. The International Judges and Prosecutors Programme in Kosovo331

ⅱ. The Special Panels for Serious Crimes in East Timor331

ⅲ. The War Crimes Chamber in Bosnia and Herzegovina332

ⅳ. The Iraqi High Tribunal333

ⅴ. The Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia334

ⅵ. Conclusion335

D. The Hybrid Tribunals335

ⅰ. Treaty-based Hybrid Tribunals: The Special Court for Sierra Leone336

ⅱ. Hybrid Tribunals Established by the Security Council: the Special Tribunal for Lebanon340

E. Conclusion346

Ⅳ. Amnesties348

A. Introduction348

B. Amnesties and the Internationalised and Hybrid Tribunals351

ⅰ. Internationalised Tribunals352

ⅱ. Hybrid Tribunals356

C. Conclusion361

Ⅴ. Securing Custody of the Accused363

A. Introduction: Cooperation and International Criminal Tribunals363

B. Cooperation and the Hybrid Tribunals369

ⅰ. Hybrid Tribunals Established by the Security Council: the Special Tribunal for Lebanon369

ⅱ. Treaty-Based Hybrid Courts: the Special Court for Sierra Leone372

C. Cooperation and Internationalised Tribunals374

D. Conclusion378

Ⅵ. Statutes of Limitation380

Ⅶ. Ne Bis in Idem384

A. Judgment by a National Court384

B. Judgment by a Hybrid or Internationalised Tribunal and National Courts387

C. Judgment by a Hybrid or Internationalised Tribunal and the International Criminal Court388

D. Conclusion389

Ⅷ. Relationship with Other Courts and Tribunals390

A. Hybrid and Internationalised Tribunals and Their Relationship to Domestic Courts390

ⅰ. Courts Within the Territorial State391

ⅲ. Hybrid and Internationalised Tribunals Exercising Supervisory Jurisdiction in Respect of Domestic Courts396

B. Courts in Third States398

Ⅸ. Hybrid and Internationalised Tribunals and the International Criminal Court399

A. Introduction399

B. Internationalised Tribunals403

C. Hybrid Tribunals404

ⅰ. Hybrid Tribunals Established on the Basis of a Treaty404

ⅱ. Hybrid Tribunals Established by the Security Council406

D. Conclusion407

Ⅹ. Conclusion408

Conclusions410

Index459