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1 INTRODUCING COMPARATIVE LAW1

Introduction1

Definitions and derivations3

Terminology: subject or method?3

The elements of 'comparative law'7

Comparative law distinguished from other disciplines7

Private international law and comparative law8

Public international law and comparative law9

Legal history, legal ethnology and comparative law9

Sociology of law and comparative law10

A rationale for comparative law10

The origins of comparative law11

Early comparative law11

The roots of comparative law13

Comparative law in England16

The contemporary significance of comparative law18

Functions and purposes of comparative law18

Comparative law as an academic discipline18

Comparative law as an academic tradition19

Using comparative law in research19

A tool of construction21

Aid to understanding legal rules22

The African situation24

The international law dimension24

Key concepts in the comparative law method26

The parent legal family and legal traditions26

Sources of law28

Comparative law method29

Selective bibliography30

2 THE CLASSIFICATION OF LEGAL SYSTEMS INTO LEGAL FAMILIES33

Terminology33

Legal traditions and legal families33

Classification of legal systems34

Criteria used to classify legal systems36

Examination and application of the criteria36

Historical development36

Mode of legal thinking38

Distinctive legal institutions39

Choice of sources of law40

Ideology of a legal system40

Convergence theory and legal unity41

Selective bibliography42

3 THE CIVIL LAW SYSTEM43

Terminology43

Different meanings of 'civil law'43

Meaning of codification in the civil law context46

Historical development of the civil law tradition47

Roman law and Western civilisation47

History of French law59

Structure and overview of the French Civil Code64

Sources of law66

Doctrine67

Status of judicial decisions (jurisprudence) in French law68

Key features of the French legal system69

Public and private law74

Distinctive French legal doctrines and concepts77

History of German law79

Application of the BGB90

Overview of the civil law tradition95

Selective bibliography96

4 THE ENGLISH COMMON LAW SYSTEM99

Introduction99

Terminology101

The English common law tradition102

The common law in the United States107

Preliminary observations107

Linguistic issues108

History of American law: some observations108

Uniformity and diversity in American law114

Comparative overview118

The common law tradition in South East Asia118

Historical introduction to the English legal world in South East Asia119

Reception of English law in Singapore and Malaysia121

Reception of English law in Singapore122

Reception of English law in Malaysia123

The common law in India125

The common law in the Far East: Hong Kong127

New legislative formula128

Hong Kong after 1997129

Can socialism and capitalism co-exist?131

The future of the common law in Hong Kong132

Comparative overview136

Selective bibliography137

5 EUROPEAN COMMUNITY LAW139

Introduction139

Scope of chapter140

Monism, dualism and accession of Britain140

The Single European Act 1986144

The institutional framework of the Community144

EC institutions and traditional international organisations145

The Council of Ministers146

The European Commission147

The European Parliament149

The European Court of Justice150

Difficulties in comparison156

Comparison of legal style of Community law with other systems157

The influence of French law158

The influence of German law160

The influence of the common law tradition161

The language of Community law162

Legislation as language163

The Community's legal order/regime164

Nature of Community law164

Direct applicability and direct effect165

Supremacy of Community law168

Community techniques of legal interpretation169

Distinctive legal institutions/doctrines170

Choice of sources of law171

Ideology of the system172

The Maastrict Treaty174

The general aims of the Treaty175

Steps to European Union175

Subsidiarity175

European citizenship176

A single economy176

Powers of the European Parliament176

Education176

Culture177

Justice and Home Affairs177

The Social Chapter and social policy177

Conclusions178

Selective bibliography180

6 SOCIALIST LAW AND OTHER TYPES OF LEGAL SYSTEMS183

Scope of chapter183

The socialist system and Russia183

The socialist concept of law184

Differences between civil law and socialist systems186

Similarities between civil law and socialist systems186

Was the socialist system part of the civil law system?188

Inquest on the Russian Empire189

The end of the USSR and the new Russian Federation190

Russian law - return to civil law or hybrid system?191

Towards a Russian social democratic State?200

Other recent developments201

Hybrid legal systems202

Other types of law203

Eastern legal conceptions203

The Chinese conception of law204

The Japanese conception of law207

Selective bibliography212

7 TECHNIQUES OF COMPARATIVE LAW213

Scope of chapter213

General considerations213

Linguistic/terminological problems214

Cultural differences between systems216

Arbitrary selection of objects of study219

'Comparability' in comparison220

Viability of theory of a common legal pattern222

Imposition of one's own legal conceptions223

Omission of extra-legal factors224

The quest for methodology225

Introduction225

Clarifying the general character of comparative law225

The subject matter of the comparison226

Macro-comparison and micro-comparison227

Suitability of topics for micro-comparison228

Comparative method: requirements228

The test of functionality230

The comparative law method233

A three stage approach233

A method of comparison: a blueprint235

Selective bibliography240

8 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF JUDICIAL STYLES AND CASE LAW243

The meaning of 'case law'243

Case law as a source of law243

Key issues244

The authority of case law in non-common law jurisdictions244

The authority of case law in non-common law countries244

Styles of judicial decisions247

Appellate court decisions247

The five styles of judgments247

Ratio and dicta248

The French style of judgment252

The German style of judgment254

General style of Federal Supreme Court judgments256

The Swedish type of judgment258

The relevance of overriding general principles259

Aequitas259

Selective bibliography263

9 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF STATUTORY INTERPRETATION265

Defining 'statutory interpretation'265

Defining 'interpretation'265

General comparative observations265

Methods/techniques of statutory interpretation267

Civil law approaches267

The logical interpretation methodology267

The legislative history approach269

The teleological approach270

Scope and limitations of the teleological approach270

Common law approaches to statutory interpretation271

Inadmissible evidence of statutory intent272

Summary of legislative history position274

The mischief rule275

Filling gaps in a statute277

Other linguistic canons of construction/interpretation278

Presumptions and precedents280

Conflict of statutes with other legal principles281

Scholarly/doctrinal writing in English statutory interpretation282

Typical structure of English statutes283

Comparative overview284

Similarities in approaches between legal systems285

Common judicial arguments on statutory interpretation286

Differences in statutory interpretation between the systems287

Conclusions290

Selective bibliography290

10 THE LAW OF OBLIGATIONS: A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF CONTRACT AND TORT293

Introduction293

Historical development: a comparative analysis294

The early Roman law of obligations294

Contracts294

Origins of the modern English law of contract300

Tortious or delictual liability304

Law of obligations: contract in civil law308

Tort and contract: contemporary comparative aspects312

Formation of contracts312

German law314

French law317

German law318

English law319

Scope of tortious liability320

American law324

Civil law325

Tort law and traffic accidents331

French law331

English law332

German law333

Fault in the law of contract and tort334

Interaction of tort and contract336

Comparative overview338

Selective bibliography339

11 CORPORATE AND COMMERCIAL LAW341

Scope of analysis341

Problems in comparison of company laws342

Key conceptual questions342

Paillusseau's enterprise notion344

Forms of business organisation: a comparative overview345

Corporate terminology in France and Germany345

Companies and contracts349

Partnership law351

Company law in France354

Legislative sources of law356

Incorporation of a societe356

Status of a societe pending incorporation357

SAs and SARLs357

Societe a responsabilite limitee (SARL)358

The GIE and the GEIE359

Company law in Germany362

Types of business organisation363

Partnerships and sole traders364

Sole traders364

Partnerships365

The silent partnership368

Limited companies and public limited companies368

A comparative overview of agency371

Historical origins371

Modern agency law: common law v civil law373

European Community corporate law377

The notion of European Community (EC) law377

The Daily Mail case378

Non-profit making undertakings378

Removal of restrictions on freedom of movement378

Statutory foundations of harmonisation of laws379

Nature of EC company law379

Directives already in force in the United Kingdom380

Comparative corporate law: conclusions380

Selective bibliography381

12 SALE OF GOODS383

Introduction383

The historical background384

Sale of goods in Roman law384

The law merchant385

Key issues in sales of goods387

Comparative study of European civil law countries388

French law388

German law394

Remedies of buyer and seller398

Contributory fault in damages400

Seller's remedies402

The English common law approach404

General404

Definition of goods under English law405

Transfer of property and transfer of ownership406

Transfer of ownership and risk of loss407

The Romalpa case415

Effect of the Romalpa case415

Principle of the Romalpa case416

Delivery at seller's own risk417

Duties of buyer and seller417

Remedies of the buyer and seller430

The Supply of Goods and Services Act 1982434

The uniform laws on international sales436

Meaning of 'international sale'437

Sale of goods438

Validity and passing of property excluded443

Interpretation of the Convention443

Ratifications444

Comparative overview445

Selective Bibliography446

13 LABOUR LAW449

Scope of chapter449

Historical development449

Great Britain449

Germany452

France463

Comparative overview472

Selective bibliography474

14 A NEW WORLD ORDER?475

Introduction475

The significance of legal history477

A new world order?478

Global wars and civil strife: historical perspectives478

Reasons for the transformation of the world order479

Reasons for the fall of communism in Eastern Europe480

Theories of convergence481

Current convergent trends481

European convergence482

Philosophies of convergence485

The jus commune theory485

Global convergence and the Fukuyama thesis488

Unification of legal systems490

Strategies of convergence490

Legal transplants491

Natural convergence491

Convergence and divergence between common law and civil law492

Convergence between European countries493

The dawn of a new era in world history494

Conclusions495

Selective bibliography496

Index499