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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION1

1 What is linguistics?1

1.1 Definition1

1.2 The scope of linguistics2

1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics5

2 What is language?9

2.1 Definitions of language9

2.2 Design features13

Review questions17

Suggested answers17

CHAPTER 2 PHONOLOGY20

1 The phonic medium of language20

2 Phonetics21

2.1 What is phonetics?21

2.2 Organs of speech22

2.3 Orthographic representation of speech sounds23

2.4 Classification of English speech sounds26

3 Phonology31

3.1 Phonology and phonetics31

3.2 Phone,phoneme,and allophone33

3.3 Phonemic contrast,complementary distribution,and minimal pair35

3.4 Some rules in phonology36

3.5 Suprasegmental features—stress,tone,intonation38

Review questions41

Suggested answers43

CHAPTER 3 MORPHOLOGY46

1 Definition46

2 Morpheme47

2.1 Morpheme:the smallest meaningful unit of language47

2.2 Types of morphemes49

3 Compounding54

3.1 Types of compound words55

3.2 Features of compounds56

Review questions58

Suggested answers59

CHAPTER 4 SYNTAX63

1 Syntax as a system of rules64

2 Sentence structure65

2.1 The basic components of a sentence65

2.2 Types of sentences66

2.3 The linear and hierarchical structures of sentences69

3 Syntactic categories72

3.1 Lexical categories73

3.2 Phrasal categories73

4 Grammatical relations74

5 Combinational rules76

5.1 Phrase structure rules77

5.2 X-bar theory79

6 Syntactic movement and movement rules81

6.1 NP-movement81

6.2 WH-movement82

6.3 AUX-movement83

6.4 D-structure and S-structure83

6.5 Move α—a general movement rule84

7 Toward a theory of universal grammar84

7.1 The General principles of Universal Grammar85

7.2 The parameters of Universal Grammar86

Review questions87

Suggested answers89

CHAPTER 5 SEMANTICS94

1 What is semantics?94

2 Some views concerning the study of meaning94

2.1 The naming theory95

2.2 The conceptualist view95

2.3 The contextualist view96

2.4 The behaviorist view98

3 Lexical meaning98

3.1 Sense and reference99

3.2 Major sense relations100

4 Sense relations between sentences107

5 Analysis of meaning109

5.1 Componential analysis—a way to analyze lexical meaning109

5.2 Predication analysis—a way to analyze sentence meaning110

Review questions113

Suggested answers115

CHAPTER 6 PRAGMATICS117

1 What is pragmatics?117

1.1 Definition117

1.2 Pragmatics vs.Semantics118

1.3 Context119

1.4 Sentence meaning vs.utterance meaning119

2 Speech act theory121

3 Principle of conversation127

Review questions130

Suggested answers131

CHAPTER 7 HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS133

1 The purpose and significance of the historical study of language133

2 The nature of language change134

3 The historical development of English135

3.1 Major periods in the history of English135

3.2 Linguistic change of English139

4 Language family155

4.1 Classifying genetically related languages156

4.2 The Indo-European language family158

5 The causes of language change159

5.1 Sound assimilation160

5.2 Rule simplification and regularization161

5.3 Internal borrowing162

5.4 Elaboration163

5.5 Sociological triggers164

5.6 Cultural transmission164

5.7 Children's approximation toward the adult grammar165

Review questions166

Suggested answers168

CHAPTER 8 SOCIOLINGUISTICS172

1 Language variation172

1.1 Speech community173

1.2 Speech variety174

1.3 Regional variation175

1.4 Social variation175

1.5 Stylistic variation176

1.6 Idiolectal variation177

2 Standard and nonstandard language177

2.1 The nature of standard and nonstandard language178

2.2 Lingua franca179

2.3 Pidgin180

2.4 Creole181

3 Diglossia and bilingualism181

3.1 Diglossia182

3.2 Bilingualism183

4 Ethnic dialect184

5 Social dialect186

5.1 Education varieties186

5.2 Age varieties187

5.3 Gender varieties188

5.4 Sexist language189

5.5 Register varieties191

5.6 Address terms194

5.7 Slang196

5.8 Linguistic taboo197

5.9 Euphemism199

Review questions201

Suggested answers203

CHAPTER 9 PSYCHOLINGUISTICS207

1 The biological foundations of language207

1.1 The human brain208

1.2 Brain lateralization209

2 Linguistic lateralization210

2.1 Left hemispheric dominance for language210

2.2 Dichotic listening research211

3 The language centers212

3.1 Broca's area212

3.2 Wernicke's area213

3.3 The angular gyrus214

3.4 Language perception,comprehension and production214

4 The critical period for language acquisition215

5 Language and thought217

5.1 Early views on language and thought217

5.2 The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis218

5.3 Arguments against the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis220

5.4 Understanding the relationship of language and thought224

Review questions228

Suggested answers230

CHAPTER 10 LANGUAGE ACQUISITION234

1 First language acquisition235

1.1 The biological basis of language acquisition235

1.2 Language acquisition as the acquisition of gramma-tical rules236

1.3 The role of input and interaction237

1.4 The role of instruction238

1.5 The role of correction and reinforcement239

1.6 The role of imitation241

2 Stages of first language acquisition242

2.1 The prelinguistic stage243

2.2 The one-word stage244

2.3 The two-word stage245

2.4 The multiword stage247

3 The development of the grammatical system249

3.1 The development of phonology249

3.2 The development of syntax250

3.3 The development of morphology251

3.4 The development of vocabulary and semantics252

4 Second language acquisition253

4.1 Acquisition versus learning254

4.2 Transfer and interference255

4.3 Error Analysis and the natural route of SLA development257

4.4 Interlanguage and fossilization258

4.5 The role of input259

4.6 The role of formal instruction260

4.7 Individual learner factors261

Review questions265

Suggested answers267

Model Test A274

Model Test A—Suggested Answers280

Model Test B285

Model Test B—Suggested Answers292

An English-Chinese Glossary297