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PART Ⅰ:STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF BIOMACROMOLECULE1

Chapter 1 Structure and Function of Protein1

SECTION 1 THE COMPOSITION OF PROTEIN2

1.1 Amino acid2

1.2 Peptide5

1.3 Some small polypeptides have biological activity6

SECTION 2 MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS7

2.1 Primary structure7

2.2 Secondary structure7

2.3 Tertiary structure11

2.4 Major noncovalent bond12

2.5 Quaternary structure13

SECTION 3 RELATION BETWEEN STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF PROTEINS14

3.1 Primary structure and potential function of protein14

3.2 Spatial structure shows the function of protein15

SECTION 4 CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PROTEINS19

4.1 Ultraviolet absorption spectrum of protein19

4.2 Isoelectric point(pI)19

4.3 Denaturation of protein20

SECTION 5 ISOLATION,PURIFICATION AND SEQUENCING OF PROTEINS21

5.1 Dialysis and ultrafiltration21

5.2 Precipitation with acetone,salting precipitation and immunoprecipitation21

5.3 Chromatographic separations23

5.4 Electrophoresis24

5.5 Ultracentrifugation26

SUMMARY27

Chapter 2 Chemistry of Nucleic Acids29

SECTION 1 MOLECULAR COMPOSITION OF NUCLEIC ACIDS30

1.1 Basic components30

1.2 Nucleosides32

1.3 Mononucleotides32

SECTION 2 MOLECULAR STRUCTURES OF DNA33

2.1 Primary structure of nucleic acid33

2.2 Chargaff's rules34

2.3 Secondary structure of DNA35

SECTION 3 PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF NUCLEIC ACIDS37

3.1 Viscosity37

3.2 Ultraviolet absorption37

3.3 Denaturation and renaturation of DNA37

3.4 Hydrolysis of acid or alkali40

SECTION 4 STRUCTURES OF RNA40

4.1 Messenger RNA40

4.2 Transfer RNA41

4.3 Ribosomal RNA42

SUMMARY44

Chapter 3 Enzymes45

SECTION 1 THE MOLECULAR COMPOSITION AND FUNCTION OF ENZYMES46

1.1 The molecular composition of enzymes46

1.2 The active center of enzymes47

1.3 Many enzymes require cofactors48

SECTION 2 PROPERTIES AND MECHANISM OF ENZYME CATALYSIS50

2.1 Remarkable properties of enzymes50

2.2 Mechanism of enzyme catalysis52

SECTION 3 THE KINETICS OF ENZYME CATALYSIS54

3.1 Catalysis occurs at the active site54

3.2 Multiple factors affect the rates of enzyme-catalyzed reactions57

3.3 Initial rate is proportionate to enzyme concentration59

3.4 Substrate concentration affects reaction rate59

3.5 The Michaelis-Menten equations model the effects of substrate concentration60

3.6 Kinetic analysis distinguishes competitive from noncompetitive inhibition62

SECTION 4 ZYMOGENS AND ISOZYMES65

4.1 Zymogens and zymogen activation65

4.2 Isozymes are physically distinct forms of the same catalytic activity66

SECTION 5 THE NAME AND CLASSIFICATION OF ENZYMES68

SECTION 6 THE QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF CERTAIN PLASMA ENZYMES IS OF DIAGNOSTIC SIGNIFICANCE69

6.1 Low levels of nonfunctional plasma enzymes result from normal destruction of cells69

6.2 Nonfunctional plasma enzymes aid diagnosis and prognosis69

SUMMARY70

PART Ⅱ:METABOLISM73

Chapter 4 Metabolism of Carbohydrate73

SECTION 1 DIGESTION OF DIETARY CARBOHYDRATES74

SECTION 2 GLYCOLYSIS75

2.1 Concept of glycolysis75

2.2 Glycolytic pathway75

2.3 Regulation of glycolysis79

2.4 Lactate metabolism82

SECTION 3 THE PYRUVATE DEHYDROGENASE COMPLEX AND THE CITRIC ACID CYCLE83

3.1 The pyruvate dehydrogenase complex83

3.2 Regulation of the PDH complex84

3.3 Reactions of the tricarboxylic acid cycle85

SECTION 4 PENTOSE PHOSPHATE PATHWAY90

4.1 Reactions of the pentose phosphate pathway90

4.2 The functions of this pathway93

4.3 Erythrocytes and the pentose phosphate pathway94

4.4 Pentose phosphate pathway with disease94

SECTION 5 GLYCOGEN METABOLISM95

5.1 Glycogen synthesis95

5.2 Glycogenolysis97

5.3 The functions of glycogenesis and glycogenolysis99

SECTION 6 GLUCONEOGENESIS99

6.1 Gluconeogenesis100

6.2 Regulation of gluconeogenesis103

SECTION 7 REGULATION OF BLOOD SUGAR LEVELS104

SUMMARY105

Chapter 5 Biological Oxidation107

SECTION 1 THE WAY OF OXIDATION107

1.1 Addition of oxygen107

1.2 Removal of electrons107

1.3 Dehydrogenation108

SECTION 2 RESPIRATORY CHAIN108

2.1 The composition of respiratory chains110

2.2 Two capital kinds of respiratory chains113

2.3 Oxidative phosphorylation121

2.4 Factors of influence on oxidative phosphorylation129

2.5 Shuttle systems are required for mitochondrial oxidation of cytosolic NADH132

SUMMARY134

Chapter 6 Lipid Metabolism136

SECTION 1 DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF LIPIDS137

SECTION 2 BLOOD LIPIDS AND LIPOPROTEINS138

2.1 The composition and content of blood lipoprotein138

2.2 The classification of lipoproteins140

SECTION 3 INTERMEDIATE METABOLISM OF TRIACYLGLYCEROLS141

3.1 Hydrolysis of triacylglycerols in adipose tissue142

3.2 Oxidation of fatty acids143

3.3 Fatty acid synthesis148

3.4 Biosynthesis of triacylglycerol150

SECTION 4 METABOLISM OF PHOSPHOLIPIDS152

SECTION 5 CHOLESTEROL METABOLISM154

5.1 Biosynthesis of cholesterol155

5.2 Transformation and excretion of cholesterol156

SUMMARY157

Chapter 7 Amino Acid Metabolism159

SECTION 1 NUTRITION OF PROTEINS159

1.1 Nutrition of the proteins159

1.2 Nitrogen balance and protein requirements160

1.3 The biosynthetic pathways of amino acids161

SECTION 2 DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF PROTEINS162

2.1 Protein tumover occurs in all forms of life162

2.2 Proteases and peptidases degrade proteins to amino acids163

SECTION 3 AMINO ACID CATABOLISM165

3.1 Overall view165

3.2 Deamination of amino acids165

3.3 Metabolism of the carbon skeletons of amino acids168

SECTION 4 METABOLISM OF AMMONIA170

4.1 Sources and disposals of blood ammonia170

4.2 Transport of ammonia170

4.3 Inter-organ exchange maintains circulating levels of amino acids172

4.4 Biosynthesis of urea172

4.5 Metabolic disorders are associated with each reaction of the urea cycle176

SECTION 5 CONVERSION OF AMINO ACIDS TO SPECIALIZED PRODUCTS178

5.1 Glycine participates in biosynthesis of glycine conjugates,creatine,heme,and purines178

5.2 α-Alanine is a major plasma amino acid179

5.3 Mammals catabolize β-alanine via malonate semialdehyde179

5.4 S-adenosylmethionine provides methyl groups for biosynthesis179

5.5 Urinary sulfate derives from cysteine180

5.6 Decarboxylation of histidine forms histamine180

5.7 Omithine and hence arginine form polyamines180

5.8 Tryptophan forms serotonin182

5.9 Melanins are polymers of tyrosine catabolites184

5.10 Creatinine excretion is a function of muscle mass186

5.11 Formation and catabolism of γ-aminobutyrate186

SUMMARY187

Chapter 8 Nucleotide Metabolism189

SECTION 1 METABOLISM OF PURINE NUCLEOTIDES190

1.1 Biosynthesis of purine nucleotides190

1.2 Degradation of purines leads to uric acid194

1.3 Clinical significances of purine metabolism195

SECTION 2 METABOLISM OF PYRIMIDINE NUCLEOTIDES196

2.1 Pyrimidine nucleotide biosynthesis196

2.2 Salvage pathways of pyrimidine199

2.3 Clinical significances of pyrimidine metabolism200

SUMMARY201

PART Ⅲ:GENE EXPRESSING203

Chapter 9 DNA Replication203

SECTION 1 PROKARYOTIC DNA SYNTHESIS204

1.1 Separation of the two complementary DNA strands205

1.2 Formation of the replication fork205

1.3 Direction of DNA replication207

1.4 RNA primer208

1.5 Chain elongation209

1.6 Excision of RNA primers and their replacement by DNA polymerase Ⅰ211

1.7 DNA ligase213

SECTION 2 EUKARYOTIC DNA REPLICATION213

2.1 The eukaryotic cell cycle213

2.2 Eukaryotic DNA polymerases214

2.3 Telomerase214

2.4 Reverse transcriptase215

2.5 Inhibition of DNA synthesis by nucleoside analogs216

2.6 Organization of eukaryotic DNA216

SECTION 3 DNA REPAIR218

3.1 Strand-directed mismatch repair system218

3.2 Repair of damage caused by ultraviolet light219

3.3 Correction of base alterations219

3.4 Repair of double-strand breaks220

SUMMARY221

Chapter 10 RNA Synthesis223

SECTION 1 TEMPLATES AND ENZYMES225

1.1 Asymmetric transcription225

1.2 DNA-dependent RNA polymerase225

SECTION 2 THE PROCESS OF TRANSCRIPTION227

2.1 Initiation228

2.2 Elongation232

2.3 Termination233

2.4 Action of antibiotics234

SECTION 3 POST TRANSCRIPTIONAL MODIFICATION OF RNA235

3.1 mRNA processing236

3.2 Ribosomal RNAs and tRNAs also undergo processing241

3.3 tRNA processing242

SUMMARY243

Chapter 11 Protein Synthesis245

SECTION 1 GENETIC CODE246

1.1 Codon247

1.2 Characteristics of the genetic code248

1.3 Consequences of altering the nucleotide sequence249

SECTION 2 COMPONENTS REQUIRED FOR TRANSLATION249

2.1 Amino acids250

2.2 Transfer RNA250

2.3 Aminoacyl-tRNA synthases251

2.4 Messenger RNA251

2.5 Functionally competent ribosomes251

2.6 Protein factors252

2.7 ATP and GTP are required as sources of energy252

SECTION 3 THE PROCESS OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS253

3.1 Activation of amino acids:Formation of aminoacyl-tRNA253

3.2 The process of translation254

3.3 Polysomes260

SECTION 4 POSTTRANSLATIONAL MODIFICATION OF POLYPEPTIDE CHAIN261

4.1 Trimming261

4.2 Covalent alterations262

4.3 Clinical relatives in protein synthesis263

SECTION 5 REGULATION AND CONTROL OF GENE EXPRESSION265

5.1 Gene control in prokaryotes266

5.2 Gene control in eukaryotes269

SUMMARY270

PART Ⅳ:SPECIAL TOPICS273

Chapter 12 Biochemistry of Liver273

SECTION 1 THE STRUCTURAL FEATURE OF LIVER273

SECTION 2 THE IMPORTANT ROLE OF LIVER IN MATERIAL METABOLISM274

2.1 Carbohydrate metabolism275

2.2 Protein metabolism275

2.3 Lipid metabolism276

2.4 Storage and filtering of blood276

2.5 Removal of used hormones and cholesterol from the blood276

2.6 Making bile salts276

2.7 Destruction of any bacteria,bowel toxins and so on277

SECTION 3 FUNCTIONS OF BIOTRANSFORMATION OF LIVER277

3.1 Hydroxylation278

3.2 Reduction reaction280

3.3 Lytic response280

3.4 Conjugation reactions280

SECTION 4 METABOLISMS OF BILE ACID282

4.1 Primary bile acids and biosynthesis of bile acids283

4.2 Secondary bile acids and enterohepatic circulation of the bile salts284

4.3 Regulation of bile acid synthesis285

4.4 Clinical significance of bile acid synthesis285

SECTION 5 METABOLISMS OF BILE PIGMENTS286

5.1 Catabolism of heme287

5.2 The liver takes up bilirubin289

5.3 Hyperbilirubinemia causes jaundice290

SUMMARY292

Chapter 13 Biochemistry of Blood293

SECTION 1 PLASMA PROTEINS293

1.1 The composition of blood293

1.2 The blood has many functions294

1.3 Plasma contains a complex mixture of proteins294

SECTION 2 RED BLOOD CELLS300

2.1 Metabolic characteristics of mature erythrocytes300

2.2 Biosynthesis of heme303

SUMMARY307

Chapter 14 Recombinant DNA Technology309

SECTION 1 DNA CLONING309

1.1 Cutting and joining DNA310

1.2 Vectors313

1.3 Transformation315

1.4 Screening315

SECTION 2 CLONING A GENE317

2.1 Genomic library317

2.2 cDNA library318

2.3 PCR320

2.4 Chemical synthesis325

SECTION 3 IDENTIFYING DNA SEQUENCE325

3.1 Probes325

3.2 Gel electrophoresis326

3.3 Nucleic acid hybridization327

3.4 DNA sequencing329

SECTION 4 MANIPULATING GENE EXPRESSION330

4.1 Expression of cloned genes in bacteria330

4.2 Expression of cloned genes in eukaryotic host cells332

4.3 Protein purification334

4.4 Alterations in cloned genes produce335

SECTION 5 MEDICAL APPLICATIONS OF RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY336

5.1 The analysis of gene variations336

5.2 Gene therapy337

5.3 Transgenic animals338

SUMMARY338

The Confer of Special Term with Frequently Used340