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Charter 1 THE SCIENCE OF CLIMATE CHANGE1

Ⅰ.INTRODUCTION1

Questions and Discussion4

Ⅱ.THE CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHANGE5

A.Increasing Greenhouse Gas Emissions5

Questions and Discussion5

B.Declining Natural Carbon Sinks5

Questions and Discussion5

C.The Relationship between GHG Concentrations and Temperature6

Questions and Discussion6

Ⅲ.THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE6

A.Melting Ice7

B.Rising Sea Levels7

C.Changing Ocean Ecology7

D.Intensifying Weather Events7

E.Declining Forests and Expanding Desertification7

F.Impacts on Ecosystems and Wildlife7

G.Regional Impacts7

Questions and Discussion7

Ⅳ.SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACTS7

A.Agriculture,Drought and Famine8

B.Public Health Impacts8

C.Climate Refugees8

Questions and Discussion8

Ⅴ.RAPID CLIMATE CHANGE EVENTS AND LIVING WITH UNCERTAINTY9

Questions and Discussion9

Ⅵ.NATIONAL SECURITY AND CLIMATE CHANGE10

Questions and Discussion10

Ⅶ.KEEPING OUR EYE ON THE BALL:LONG-TERM STABILIZATION TARGETS TO AVOID THE WORST CLIMATE IMPACTS11

Questions and Discussion11

APPENDIX A SAMPLE LECTURE NOTES14

Chanter 2 RESPONDING TO CLIMATE CHANGE:MITIGATION15

Ⅰ.INTRODUCTION15

Ⅱ.GENERAL MITIGATION APPROACHES15

A.Climate Change as a Market Failure15

Questions and Discussion16

B.Internalizing External Costs:Cures for Market Failure16

1.Traditional Regulation16

2.Emissions Trading16

Questions and Discussion17

3.Carbon Taxes17

Questions and Discussion18

4.Information-Based Approaches18

5.Investment ＆ Technology Approaches19

Questions and Discussion19

Ⅲ.MITIGATION POLICIES AT THE SECTORAL LEVEL19

A.Mitigation Measures19

Questions and Discussion19

B.Stabilization Wedges:Mitigation One Step at a Time20

Questions and Discussion20

Ⅳ.THE BENEFITS AND COSTS OF CLIMATE MITIGATION20

A.The Stern Review of Climate Economics21

Questions and Discussion21

B.The Critique of Cost-Benefit Analyses22

Questions and Discussion22

Chapter 3 RESPONDING TO CLIMATE CHANGE:ADAPTATION23

Ⅰ.INTRODUCTION23

Ⅱ.ADAPTATION STRATEGIES23

A.Adaptive Infrastructure23

B.Response to Sea Level Rise:Defend or Retreat23

Questions and Discussion24

C.Expanding Disaster Relief24

D.Adaptive Agriculture25

E.Adaptive Water Management25

F.Relocation of Climate Refugees25

G.Enhancing Natural Resilience and Ecosystem Services25

H.Insurance as Adaptation25

Questions and Discussion25

Ⅲ.INTERNATIONAL CHALLENGES OF ADAPTATION26

Questions and Discussion26

Ⅳ.GEOENGINEERING27

A.What is Geoengineering?27

B.The Geoengineering Debate27

Questions and Discussion27

Chapter 4 THE UNITED NATIONS FRAMEWORKCONVENTION ON CLIMATE CHANGE29

Ⅰ.AN INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL TREATIES29

Questions and Discussion29

Ⅱ.THE GLOBAL POLITICS OF CLIMATE CHANGE30

A.National and Regional Contributions to Climate Change30

B.Global Divides in Climate Politics30

Questions and Discussion31

Ⅲ.THE NEGOTIATIONS OF THE UN FRAMEWORK CONVENTION31

A.The Early Years:Building Support for an International Convention on Climate Change31

Questions and Discussion31

B.Negotiations of the UNFCCC32

Questions and Discussion32

Ⅳ.THE UN FRAMEWORK CONVENTION ON CLIMATE CHANGE32

Problem Exercise:Reading the UNFCCC33

A.Selected Principles Underlying the UNFCCC34

Questions and Discussion35

1.State Sovereignty35

Questions and Discussion35

2.Common Concern of Humankind36

Questions and Discussion36

3.The Right to Sustainable Development36

Questions and Discussion37

4.Common but Differentiated Responsibilities37

Questions and Discussion37

5.Equity38

6.Intergenerational Equity38

Questions and Discussion38

7.The Precautionary Principle38

Questions and Discussion38

B.The UNFCCC Objective39

Questions and Discussion39

C.Commitments39

Questions and Discussion39

Questions and Discussion40

D.Institutional Architecture41

Questions and Discussion41

Ⅴ.EVALUATING THE UNFCCC:THE FRAMEWORK-PROTOCOL MODEL41

Questions and Discussion41

Chapter 5 INTRODUCTION TO THE KYOTO PROTOCOL43

Ⅰ.INTRODUCTION43

Ⅱ.NEGOTIATING THE KYOTO PROTOCOL43

A.The First CoP and the Berlin Mandate43

Questions and Discussion44

B.Prelude to Kyoto:Building Political Will44

Questions and Discussion44

C.Negotiations at Kyoto45

Questions and Discussion45

Ⅲ.THE KYOTO PROTOCOL45

Questions and Discussion45

A.Emission Reduction Targets and Timetables46

Questions and Discussion46

B.Policies and Measures46

Questions and Discussion46

C.Forests and Other Sinks46

Questions and Discussion47

D.Emissions Trading and Other Flexibility Mechanisms47

Questions and Discussion47

E.Implementation and Compliance47

Questions and Discussion47

Ⅳ.TOWARDS RATIFICATION:NEGOTIATING THE MARRAKESH ACCORDS48

Questions and Discussion48

Chapter 6 IMPLEMENTING THE KYOTO PROTOCOL49

Ⅰ.INTRODUCTION49

Ⅱ.THE KYOTO PROTOCOL'S FLEXIBILITY MECHANISMS49

A.Bubbles49

Questions and Discussion49

B.Joint Implementation50

Questions and Discussion50

C.Clean Development Mechanism50

Questions and Discussion50

Ⅲ.IMPLEMENTATION ISSUES52

A.Supplementarity52

Questions and Discussion52

B.Additionality53

1.Establishing Baseline Emissions53

2.Additionality Assessment53

3.Leakage54

Questions and Discussion54

C.Eligibility of Parties57

Questions and Discussion58

D.Problems of Project Breadth and Equity in the CDM58

1.Breadth of CDM Projects58

Questions and Discussion60

2.Inequitable Distribution of CDM Benefits61

Questions and Discussion61

Ⅳ.IMPLEMENTATION OF KYOTO'S FLEXIBILITY MECHANISMS:THE EUROPEAN UNION'S EMISSIONS TRADING SCHEME64

A.Key Features of the ETS64

Questions and Discussion66

B.Implementation of the ETS66

Questions and Discussion66

Chaoter 7 LAND USE AND FORESTRY69

Ⅰ.INTRODUCTION69

Ⅱ.THE ROLE OF LAND USE ACTIVITIES IN CLIMATE CHANGE69

Questions and Discussion70

Ⅲ.INCORPORATING LAND USE INTO THE CLIMATE REGIME71

A.Accounting Challenges of Land Use Activities71

Questions and Discussion71

B.The Kyoto Protocol Negotiations71

C.The Rules of the Kyoto Protocol72

1.Defining Land Use Activities:LULUCF72

Questions and Discussion72

2.Accounting for LULUCF Activities72

a.Afforestation,Reforestation,and Deforestation72

b.Revegetation and Cropland and Grazing Land Management74

c.Forest Management74

Questions and Discussion74

D.LULUCF and the CDM75

Questions and Discussion76

Ⅳ.DEFORESTATION AND CLIMATE CHANGE78

Questions and Discussion79

Chapter 8 COMPLIANCE AND DISPUTE SETTLEMENT83

Ⅰ.INTRODUCTION83

Ⅱ.COMPLIANCE UNDER MULTILATERAL ENVIRONMENTAL AGREEMENTS83

Questions and Discussion84

Ⅲ.COMPLIANCE WITH THE CLIMATE CHANGE REGIME84

A.The Climate Change Convention84

Questions and Discussion85

B.The Kyoto Protocol85

1.The Kyoto Protocol's Compliance Mechanism86

2.The Consequences of Noncompliance87

Questions and Discussion87

Ⅳ.DISPUTE SETTLEMENT AND RESOLUTION90

A.Settlement of Disputes under the Climate Change Regime90

Questions and Discussion90

B.Climate Disputes under Customary International Law90

1.The Duty Not to Cause Environmental Harm90

2.State Responsibility91

Questions and Discussion91

Chapter 9 BEYOND 2012:THE POST-KYOTO CLIMATE REGIME95

Ⅰ.INTRODUCTION95

Ⅱ.THE ROAD TO BALI96

A.Europe and Other Annex I Parties96

Questions and Discussion96

B.The United States and the Major Emitters' Process96

Questions and Discussion96

C.The G897

Questions and Discussion97

D.Developing Countries98

Questions and Discussion98

Ⅲ.THE BALI ACTION PLAN98

Questions and Discussion98

Ⅳ.OPTIONS FOR A POST-KYOTO PROTOCOL AGREEMENT100

A.Who Will Be Subject to Commitments?100

Questions and Discussion100

B.The Nature of the Commitments100

1.The Commitment Goal100

Questions and Discussion100

2.Options for Mitigation Commitments101

a.Intensity Targets101

Questions and Discussion101

b.Action Targets101

Questions and Discussion101

c.Policies and Measures102

Questions and Discussion102

Chapter 10 CLIMATE CHANGE AND OTHER INTERNATIONAL LAW REGIMES103

Ⅰ.INTRODUCTION103

Ⅱ.THE OZONE REGIME AND CLIMATE CHANGE103

A.Introduction to Ozone Depletion104

B.The UNFCCC's Treatment of Ozone Depleting Substances104

C.The Montreal Protocol Regime's Treatment of Greenhouse Gases104

Questions and Discussion104

Ⅲ.BIODIVERSITY-RELATED TREATIES105

A.World Heritage Convention105

1.Background105

2.World Heritage Sites in Danger Due to Climate Change105

Questions and Discussion105

B.Convention on Biological Diversity106

Questions and Discussion106

C.Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora106

Questions and Discussion106

D.Wetlands of International Importance—The Ramsar Convention106

Questions and Discussion106

E.The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals107

Questions and Discussion107

Ⅳ.CLIMATE CHANGE AND THE LAW OF THE SEA107

A.Introduction107

B.The Law of the Sea Regime107

Questions and Discussion107

C.Shifting Baselines Due to Climate Change108

Questions and Discussion108

D.Ocean Fertilization and Climate Change108

Questions and Discussion108

Ⅴ.HUMAN RIGHTS CONVENTIONS109

A.Introduction109

Questions and Discussion109

B.The Inuit Petition to the Inter-American Commission110

Questions and Discussion110

C.The Small Island States110

Questions and Discussion110

D.Human Rights Impacts of Climate Change Policies110

Questions and Discussion110

Ⅵ.CLIMATE CHANGE AND THE INTERNATIONAL TRADE REGIME111

A.Introduction111

B.Climate Impacts of International Trade111

Questions and Discussion111

C.Competitiveness Concerns112

Questions and Discussion112

D.International Trade Rules and Climate Change Policy:Challenges and Opportunities112

1.An Introduction to International Trade Rules112

Questions and Discussion113

2.Carbon and Other Taxes114

a.Automobile Taxes114

b.Carbon Taxes114

c.Border Tax Adjustments114

d.Taxes on Products Made with Fossil Fuels114

Questions and Discussion114

3.Renewable Energy Requirements114

Questions and Discussion114

4.Fuel Efficiency Standards and Ecolabels117

Questions and Discussion117

5.Subsidies117

Questions and Discussion117

Chapter 11 U.S.CLIMATE CHANGE POLICIES119

Ⅰ.AN OVERVIEW OF GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS IN THE UNITED STATES119

Ⅱ.THE BUSH ADMINISTRATION'S POLICY ON CLIMATE CHANGE120

Questions and Discussion120

Ⅲ.LEGISLATIVE PROPOSALS TO ADDRESS CLIMATE CHANGE122

A.Emissions Trading122

Questions and Discussion124

B.Carbon Tax Legislation126

Questions and Discussion127

Chapter 12 CLIMATE CHANGE IN THE COURTS129

Ⅰ.THRESHOLD ISSUES129

Ⅱ.ARTICLE Ⅲ STANDING129

A.Standing in Early Climate Cases129

B.Massachusetts v.EPA130

Questions and Discussion130

CENTER FOR BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY v.UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR,563 F.3d 466(D.C.Cir.2009)132

Ⅲ.IS CLIMATE CHANGE A NONJUSTICIABLE POLITICAL QUESTION?135

CONNECTICUT v.AMERICAN ELECTRIC POWER COMPANY,Inc.,____F.3d____,2009 WL 2996729(2d Cir.Sept.21,2009)135

Questions and Discussion141

Chapter 13 CLIMATE CHANGE UNDER EXISTING FEDERAL ENVIRONMENTAL STATUTES143

Ⅰ.REGULATING CLIMATE CHANGE UNDER THE CLEAN AIR ACT143

A.Overview of the CAA144

1.NAAQS144

2.Hazardous Air Pollutants144

3.Stationary Source Emissions Standards orLimitations144

4.Mobile Source Emissions Standards144

Questions and Discussion144

B.Massachusetts v.EPA:The Authority to Regulate144

Questions and Discussion144

C.Regulation of Vehicle Emissions Standards by the States146

1.California's Waiver under the Clean Air Act for Vehicle Emissions Standards147

Questions and Discussion147

2.Are California's State Vehicle Emissions Standards Pre-empted?148

D.Challenges to Coal-Fired Power Plants148

Questions and Discussion149

E.Future Regulation of Climate Change149

Ⅱ.THE NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY ACT149

A.Is an EIS Needed?149

Questions and Discussion149

B.The Scope of the "Effects" Analysis151

1.Direct and Indirect Effects151

Questions and Discussion151

Questions and Discussion151

2.Cumulative Impacts152

Questions and Discussion152

C.Alternatives153

Questions and Discussion153

Ⅲ.THE ENDANGERED SPECIES ACT153

A.Introduction to the ESA153

1.Prohibition against "Taking"154

2.Designation of Critical Habitat154

3.Consultation and the Duty to Avoid Jeopardy154

4.Recovery Plans154

B.Polar Bears,Climate Change and the ESA154

1.A Dependency on Diminishing Sea Ice155

2.Polar Bears Are Threatened with Extinction155

3.Can the ESA Save the Polar Bear from Climate Change?155

a.Jeopardy and Adverse Modification of Critical Habitat155

Questions and Discussion155

b.Prohibitions against "Taking" Polar Bears156

Questions and Discussion156

c.Recovery Plans157

Questions and Discussion157

Ⅳ.THE CLEAN WATER ACT158

A.Overview158

B.Climate Change and the Water Quality Standards Program158

1.The 303(d)Listing Process158

Questions and Discussion158

2.The Consequences of a 303(d)Listing Decision158

a.Implications for Point Sources:The Prohibition against New Discharges into Water Quality Limited Streams158

Questions and Discussion158

b.Implications for All Sources:Compliance with TMDLs158

Questions and Discussion158

Chapter 14 U.S.LAW AND POLICY:ENERGY159

Ⅰ.INTRODUCTION159

Ⅱ.TRADITIONAL ELECTRICITY REGULATION AND FOSSIL FUELS159

A.An Introduction to the U.S.Electricity System159

Questions and Discussion159

B.Utility Regulation and Fossil Fuel Use161

Questions and Discussion162

C.Addressing Carbon Dioxide Emissions through Utility Regulation162

1.An Overview of PUC Authority162

Questions and Discussion162

2.PUC Decisions Regarding Coal-Fired Power Plants162

Questions and Discussion163

Ⅲ.REVISING THE ENERGY PORTFOLIO IN THE UNITED STATES164

A.Traditional Fuels as Sustainable Energy Sources?164

1."Clean Coal"164

Questions and Discussion164

2.Nuclear Power164

Questions and Discussion164

B.Renewable Energy Sources165

1.Wind Power165

Questions and Discussion165

2.Solar Power165

Questions and Discussion165

3.Hydropower166

Questions and Discussion166

Ⅳ.RENEWABLE ENERGY GENERATION:REGULATION AND INCENTIVES166

A.Reforming the Electricity System166

Questions and Discussion166

B.Renewable Portfolio Standards167

Questions and Discussion167

C.Tax Credits,Deductions,and Other Incentives168

Ⅴ.ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION168

Questions and Discussion168

Chapter 15 U.S.LAW AND POLICY:TRANSPORTATION171

Ⅰ.AUTOMOBILE FUEL EFFICIENCY STANDARDS171

A.Early Case Law and Deference to NHTSA171

Questions and Discussion171

B.Recent Developments in the CAFE Program:A New Era?172

1.Reformed CAFE and Light Trucks172

Questions and Discussion173

2.The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007173

Questions and Discussion174

Ⅱ.REFORMING THE TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURE175

A.A Survey of Policies to Reduce Vehicle Miles Traveled(VMT)175

Questions and Discussion175

B.The Role of the Federal Government in Transportation Policies176

Questions and Discussion176

Ⅲ.ALTERNATIVE FUELS177

A.An Overview of Alternative Fuel Production and Use177

1.Agricultural Sources of Fuels177

Questions and Discussion177

2.Natural Gas178

3.Hydrogen Fuel Cells178

Questions and Discussion178

B.The Legal Framework Regulating Alternative Fuels178

1.Tax Incentives and Subsidies178

Questions and Discussion178

2.Renewable Fuel Standards178

Questions and Discussion178

C.Are Hybrids and Plug-In Vehicles the Solution?179

1.An Overview of PHEV Technology179

Questions and Discussion179

2.Policies Affected PHEV Use179

Questions and Discussion179

Questions and Discussion179

Chapter 16 CLIMATE CHANGE AND TORTS183

Ⅰ.INTRODUCTION183

Questions and Discussion183

Ⅱ.A REVIEW OF CURRENT CLIMATE-RELATED TORT CASES184

A.The State Attorneys General Cases184

B.Private Causes of Action184

STATE OF CONNECTICUT,ET AL.v.AMERICAN ELECTRIC POWER COMPANY INC.,ET AL.,2009 U.S.App.LEXIS 20873,at pp 69-71,99-102184

Questions and Discussion186

Ⅲ.EVALUATING THE ELEMENTS OF A TORT ACTION IN THE CLIMATE CONTEXT188

A.Breach of Duty:The Reasonableness of Defendants' Actions188

Questions and Discussion188

B.Causation188

Questions and Discussion188

C.Damages189

Questions and Discussion189

Ⅳ.DEFENSES TO TORT ACTIONS189

A.Political Question Doctrine and other Threshold Issues189

B.Are Common Law Claims Pre-Empted by the Clean Air Act?189

1.Is Federal Common Law Preempted?189

Questions and Discussion(from supplement concerning Connecticut v.AEP)190

Questions and Discussion190

2.Is State Common Law Preempted?190

Questions and Discussion190

Ⅴ.FUTURE IMPLICATIONS OF TORT LITIGATION191

Questions and Discussion191

Chapter 17 STATE AND LOCAL RESPONSES TO CLIMATE CHANGE193

Ⅰ.INTRODUCTION193

Ⅱ.STATE AND LOCAL ACTIONS TO MITIGATE CLIMATE CHANGE193

A.Regional Measures193

Questions and Discussion193

B.State and Local Measures196

1.Renewable Portfolio Standards196

Questions and Discussion196

2.Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction Goals197

a.Statewide Emissions Reductions:California197

Questions and Discussion197

b.Local Emissions Reductions:Portland,Oregon197

Questions and Discussion197

3.Measures to Limit Emissions from Coal Plants197

Questions and Discussion197

4.Other Common State and Local Measures198

Ⅲ.DOES THE COMMERCE CLAUSE PROHIBIT SUB-FEDERAL REGULATION OF GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS?198

A.Commerce Clause Challenges to Emissions Standards198

Questions and Discussion198

B.Commerce Clause Challenges to Renewable Portfolio Standards199

Questions and Discussion199

Ⅳ.THE FUTURE ROLE OF STATE AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS199

Questions and Discussion199

Chapter 18 THE PRIVATE SECTOR201

Ⅰ.INTRODUCTION201

Ⅱ.WHY DO CORPORATIONS VOLUNTARILY CURB EMISSIONS?201

Questions and Discussion201

Ⅲ.VOLUNTARY COMMITMENTS AND ACTIONS202

A.Reporting and Reducing GHG Emissions202

Questions and Discussion202

B.Creating a Market:The Chicago Climate Exchange203

Questions and Discussion203

Ⅳ.GREENING INVESTMENT AND GREEN COLLAR JOBS203

Questions and Discussion204

Ⅴ.THE PRIVATE SECTOR AND PUBLIC CLIMATE POLICY204

Questions and Discussion204

Chapter 19 TOWARD A CARBON-FREE FUTURE205

Ⅰ.ENVISIONING A CARBON-FREE FUTURE205

Questions and Discussion205

Ⅱ.HOW TO ACHIEVE A CARBON-FREE FUTURE206

Questions and Discussion206

Ⅲ.BUILDING SUPPORT FOR A CARBON-FREE FUTURE207

A.Building Political Will for Preventing Climate Change207

Questions and Discussion207

B.Reframing How We Talk About Climate Change207

Questions and Discussion207